Is dichlorvos effective against bedbugs?

Understanding Dichlorvos

What is Dichlorvos?

Dichlorvos, also known as DDVP, is an organophosphate insecticide synthesized from phosphoric acid and chloral. Its chemical formula is C₄H₇Cl₂O₄P, and it functions as a volatile liquid that readily penetrates the respiratory system of insects. The compound inhibits acetylcholinesterase, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine at neural synapses and resulting in paralysis and death of exposed arthropods.

Key characteristics of dichlorvos include:

High vapor pressure, enabling rapid dissemination in treated spaces.
Broad-spectrum activity against flies, moths, beetles, and other pests.
Short environmental half-life, typically degrading within days under sunlight and moisture.
Classification as a restricted-use pesticide in many jurisdictions due to toxicity concerns.

In residential pest management, dichlorvos has been applied as a spray or fogger to target concealed infestations. Its volatility allows contact with hidden bedbug populations, yet the same property raises occupational safety issues. Exposure limits set by regulatory agencies require protective equipment and controlled application environments to prevent adverse health effects in humans and non‑target organisms.

Regulatory status varies: some countries have withdrawn registration for indoor use, while others permit limited applications under strict conditions. When evaluating its suitability for bedbug control, consider efficacy data, resistance patterns, and compliance with local pesticide regulations.

How Dichlorvos Works as an Insecticide

Mechanism of Action

Dichlorvos (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate) is a volatile organophosphate insecticide applied as a liquid, aerosol, or fumigant. Its principal toxic action results from inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme that hydrolyzes the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at synaptic clefts.

When dichlorvos contacts the cuticle of Cimex lectularius, it penetrates the hemolymph and reaches neuronal synapses. The phosphoric group of the molecule covalently binds to the serine residue in the active site of AChE, forming a phosphorylated enzyme complex. This complex is reversible but persists long enough to prevent normal enzyme turnover, causing acetylcholine to accumulate in the synaptic cleft. Continuous stimulation of nicotinic and muscarinic receptors leads to uncontrolled depolarization of nerve and muscle cells.

The resulting neuroexcitation manifests as tremors, loss of coordinated movement, and eventual paralysis. Bedbugs lack efficient detoxification pathways for organophosphates, so the accumulated acetylcholine rapidly disrupts central and peripheral nervous functions, culminating in mortality.

Key steps of the biochemical cascade are:

Penetration of dichlorvos through the insect cuticle.
Binding of the phosphoric moiety to the serine hydroxyl of AChE.
Formation of a reversible phosphorylated AChE complex.
Inhibition of acetylcholine hydrolysis.
Persistent receptor activation, leading to neuronal overstimulation.
Paralysis and death of the insect.

The volatility of dichlorvos enhances its efficacy in confined spaces, allowing it to act both as a contact insecticide and as a fumigant that reaches hidden crevices where bedbugs reside.

Common Formulations and Applications

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, is supplied primarily in three commercial forms: liquid emulsifiable concentrate (EC), wettable powder (WP), and granules (G). The EC formulation contains the active ingredient dissolved in a solvent mixture, allowing rapid penetration of insect cuticles and immediate toxicity. WP consists of finely milled particles that must be mixed with water before application, providing a homogeneous spray suitable for large surface coverage. Granular products are designed for incorporation into soil or application in crevices, delivering a slow-release dose that can persist in hidden habitats.

Typical application methods target bedbug infestations in residential and commercial settings. Spraying EC or WP solutions directly onto infested areas—mattresses, box springs, baseboards, and furniture seams—creates a residual film that remains active for several days, depending on ventilation and surface material. Granular formulations are placed in wall voids, under flooring, or in carpet padding, where they slowly dissolve and migrate into adjacent cracks, reaching concealed insects. All formulations require strict adherence to label-specified dilution ratios, exposure times, and personal protective equipment to ensure operator safety and effective pest control.

Dichlorvos and Bed Bugs

Historical Use of Dichlorvos for Pest Control

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, entered the market in the 1940s as a volatile liquid for agricultural and structural pest control. Its rapid action against a broad spectrum of insects made it a standard ingredient in fumigants, aerosol sprays, and impregnated strips.

1940s: commercial launch as “Vapona” for grain storage and orchard treatments.
1950s: expansion into residential products for flies, cockroaches, and stored‑product insects.
1960s: widespread inclusion in household foggers and “bug‑off” strips targeting crawling insects.
1970s: mounting evidence of human toxicity prompted regulatory reviews; many jurisdictions imposed usage limits.

The chemical functions by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, causing uncontrolled nerve transmission and swift mortality. This mechanism produced immediate knock‑down of adult insects, a property valued in emergency infestations.

Early bed‑bug research, published in the 1960s, documented that dichlorvos vapors reduced adult populations in laboratory chambers. Field applications in infested apartments achieved temporary suppression, but residual activity declined within weeks due to rapid volatilization and degradation on indoor surfaces. Subsequent studies highlighted resistance development and re‑infestation rates after treatment cessation.

Regulatory agencies now restrict dichlorvos in many countries, favoring less hazardous alternatives for bed‑bug management. The historical record confirms that, while dichlorvos delivered rapid kill rates, its limited persistence and safety concerns have reduced its role in contemporary bed‑bug control programs.

Effectiveness of Dichlorvos Against Bed Bugs

Immediate Knockdown Effect

Dichlorvos (DDVP) acts as a potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, causing rapid neural disruption in Cimex lectularius. Upon contact, the compound penetrates the insect’s cuticle, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine at synaptic junctions. This biochemical cascade produces paralysis within seconds to a few minutes, depending on concentration and exposure duration.

Laboratory assays report 90–100 % knockdown of adult bedbugs within 3–5 minutes when surfaces are treated with 0.5 % DDVP solution.
Nymphal stages exhibit similar susceptibility, with median knockdown time of 2 minutes at the same concentration.
Field trials using impregnated strips indicate 80 % immediate knockdown in infested cracks, followed by mortality within 30 minutes.
Higher concentrations (1 %) reduce knockdown time to under 2 minutes but increase risk of human exposure and material corrosion.

The immediate knockdown effect demonstrates that dichlorvos can quickly incapacitate bedbugs, providing a rapid reduction in visible activity. However, persistent control requires integration with residual treatments, because the volatile nature of DDVP limits long‑term residual activity.

Residual Efficacy

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, exhibits measurable residual activity against Cimex lectularius when applied to typical indoor surfaces. Laboratory assays demonstrate mortality rates of 80–95 % within 24 hours after exposure, with effectiveness persisting for 7–14 days depending on formulation and substrate. Field trials report a decline in residual potency after the first week, with residual knock‑down dropping below 50 % by day 10 on porous materials such as painted wood, while non‑porous surfaces (e.g., ceramic tile) retain >60 % efficacy through day 14.

Key factors influencing residual performance:

Surface type: Porous substrates absorb the active ingredient, accelerating degradation; smooth, non‑absorbent surfaces prolong activity.
Application rate: Higher concentrations extend residual life but increase toxicity risk; label‑recommended rates balance efficacy and safety.
Environmental conditions: Elevated temperature and humidity accelerate hydrolysis of dichlorvos, reducing residual duration; cooler, drier environments preserve activity.
Formulation: Micro‑encapsulated or oil‑based preparations show slower release and longer residual effect compared with aqueous solutions.

Comparative data indicate that dichlorvos residual efficacy is shorter than that of pyrethroid‑based products, which often maintain activity for 30 days or more, but exceeds that of fast‑acting desiccant dusts, whose effect wanes within 3–5 days. Consequently, dichlorvos may be suitable for short‑term suppression in heavily infested dwellings, provided re‑application aligns with the observed residual decline.

Stages of Bed Bugs Affected

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, targets the nervous system of bed‑bugs by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, leading to rapid paralysis and death. Its effectiveness varies across the insect’s developmental stages.

Eggs: The protective chorion limits absorption, resulting in low mortality. Residual deposits on surfaces may reduce hatch rates, but direct ovicidal action is minimal.
First‑instar nymphs: Thin cuticle permits faster penetration, producing high mortality within minutes of contact.
Later‑instar nymphs (2nd–5th): Increased cuticle thickness slightly reduces uptake, yet lethal doses remain achievable; mortality occurs within 30–60 minutes.
Adults: Fully developed cuticle offers moderate resistance, but exposure to recommended field concentrations causes death in under two hours.

Field applications rely on thorough coverage of hiding places to ensure contact with all stages. Residual activity persists for several days, providing continued exposure to newly emerging nymphs. Effective control therefore depends on targeting early nymphal stages while maintaining sufficient residue to affect later stages and adults.

Challenges and Limitations of Using Dichlorvos for Bed Bugs

Resistance Development

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, inhibits acetylcholinesterase, causing paralysis in bedbugs. Repeated exposure creates selective pressure that favors individuals with detoxifying enzymes or altered target sites, leading to measurable resistance.

Laboratory selection has produced strains with up to 20‑fold higher LC50 values compared with susceptible populations. Field surveys in infested dwellings report mortality rates dropping below 50 % after standard application doses, confirming that resistance is not confined to controlled settings.

Mechanisms identified include:

Overexpression of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases that metabolize dichlorvos.
Mutations in the acetylcholinesterase gene reducing binding affinity.
Enhanced esterase activity that hydrolyzes the compound before it reaches the nervous system.

Cross‑resistance is observed with other organophosphates sharing the same mode of action, and, in some cases, with carbamates that target the same enzyme class.

Effective resistance management requires:

Routine bioassays to detect shifts in susceptibility.
Rotation of insecticides with unrelated mechanisms, such as desiccant dusts or growth regulators.
Integration of non‑chemical tactics—heat treatment, vacuuming, and encasement of harborages—to reduce population size.
Documentation of treatment outcomes to guide future interventions.

Continual monitoring and diversified control strategies mitigate the risk of resistance rendering dichlorvos ineffective against bedbug infestations.

Penetration Issues in Hiding Spots

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate vapour, must reach the micro‑environments where bedbugs hide to achieve mortality. Cracks, seams, and deep voids in furniture, wall voids, and mattress folds often limit exposure because the compound’s volatility does not guarantee diffusion through dense or sealed substrates. Consequently, treatment success depends on the insecticide’s ability to penetrate these concealed refuges.

The molecule’s low molecular weight and high vapour pressure enable rapid dispersion in open air, yet the same properties reduce residence time on surfaces. When vapour encounters a narrow crevice, it can dissipate before fully saturating the space, leaving a sub‑lethal concentration that fails to eradicate the population. Moreover, porous materials such as wood or foam may absorb the vapour, further diminishing the amount that reaches deeper hiding spots.

Key factors influencing penetration:

Temperature: Higher ambient temperatures increase vapour pressure, enhancing diffusion but also accelerating evaporation.
Airflow: Forced ventilation or fan‑assisted distribution can drive vapour deeper, whereas stagnant air limits movement.
Material density: Dense, non‑porous surfaces act as barriers; porous substrates may trap the chemical, reducing availability.
Application method: Foggers, micro‑encapsulated formulations, or continuous-release devices each produce different concentration gradients.

Effective control requires augmenting vapour application with mechanical disruption—vacuuming, steam, or heat—to expose concealed insects and reduce barriers. Combining dichlorvos with complementary tactics improves the likelihood that sufficient concentrations reach the most protected locations, thereby increasing overall treatment efficacy.

Health and Safety Concerns

Toxicity of Dichlorvos to Humans and Pets

Acute Exposure Symptoms

Acute exposure to dichlorvos, the organophosphate commonly applied for bed‑bug eradication, produces a rapid onset of cholinergic toxicity. Symptoms appear within minutes to a few hours after inhalation, dermal contact, or ingestion and may progress quickly without prompt treatment.

Typical manifestations include:

Excessive salivation, lacrimation, and sweating
Constriction of pupils (miosis) and blurred vision
Muscle weakness, tremors, and fasciculations
Nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea
Headache, dizziness, and confusion
Bradycardia or tachycardia, hypertension or hypotension
Respiratory distress due to bronchospasm or central depression

Severe cases can evolve into seizures, loss of consciousness, and respiratory failure. Immediate decontamination and administration of atropine and pralidoxime are standard emergency measures. Monitoring of vital signs and supportive ventilation are essential until cholinergic effects subside.

Chronic Exposure Risks

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate used for bedbug control, presents measurable health concerns when exposure extends beyond short-term applications. Chronic inhalation or dermal contact can inhibit acetylcholinesterase, leading to persistent neurological symptoms such as tremors, memory impairment, and reduced motor coordination. Long-term exposure has been linked to respiratory irritation, chronic bronchitis, and an elevated risk of certain cancers, particularly those associated with mutagenic agents.

Occupational settings amplify risk due to repeated handling of the chemical. Workers applying the insecticide without adequate protective equipment may experience cumulative dose accumulation, resulting in:

Persistent headaches and dizziness.
Decreased cholinesterase activity detectable in blood tests.
Hormonal disruptions influencing reproductive health.

Environmental persistence contributes to indirect exposure. Soil and water contamination can affect non‑target organisms, and bioaccumulation may introduce the toxin into the food chain, posing additional chronic hazards for humans consuming affected produce or water sources. Mitigation strategies include strict adherence to exposure limits, routine health monitoring, and the use of alternative, low‑toxicity control methods where feasible.

Environmental Impact

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, is applied as a liquid or vapor to control bedbug infestations. Its mode of action involves inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, leading to rapid paralysis and death of the target insects.

The compound exhibits high acute toxicity to aquatic invertebrates, fish, and beneficial insects such as pollinators. Runoff from treated areas can introduce measurable concentrations into surface waters, where it persists for days to weeks depending on temperature and pH. Soil microorganisms experience reduced activity after exposure, and the chemical can be absorbed by plants, entering the food chain.

Key environmental characteristics include:

Low vapor‑pressure formulation reduces atmospheric dispersion but increases indoor air concentrations during application.
Rapid hydrolysis in alkaline conditions; slower degradation in neutral or acidic soils extends environmental residence time.
No significant bioaccumulation documented in higher trophic levels, yet repeated applications raise cumulative exposure risks.

Regulatory agencies restrict residential use in many jurisdictions, requiring sealed application sites and protective equipment for applicators. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies—such as heat treatment, encasement of mattresses, and targeted mechanical removal—lower reliance on dichlorvos and mitigate its ecological footprint.

Regulatory Status and Restrictions

International Regulations

Dichlorvos, an organophosphate pesticide, is subject to multiple international control mechanisms that influence its availability for bed‑bug management. The Rotterdam Convention requires prior informed consent before export to parties that have listed the chemical, reflecting concerns about acute toxicity. The Stockholm Convention does not include dichlorvos in its annexes, but the chemical is monitored by the Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee due to potential environmental persistence. The World Health Organization’s Pesticide Evaluation Scheme classifies dichlorvos as “moderately hazardous” and recommends limited use in residential settings. The Food and Agriculture Organization’s International Code of Conduct for Pesticide Management advises risk‑based assessment before deployment against indoor pests.

Key regulatory provisions affecting dichlorvos use:

Export‑import control under the Rotterdam Convention, with consent required from importing nations.
Classification as a “moderately hazardous” substance by WHO, restricting label claims and required safety precautions.
National registration limits in the European Union (EU) and United States, where many jurisdictions have withdrawn or suspended approvals for indoor pest control.
Mandatory personal protective equipment and training for applicators as stipulated by the FAO Code of Conduct.

These frameworks collectively limit the legal application of dichlorvos for controlling bed‑bug infestations, requiring users to comply with consent procedures, hazard classifications, and national registration status before implementation.

National and Local Bans/Restrictions

Dichlorvos, a volatile organophosphate insecticide, faces extensive regulatory limitations in many jurisdictions because of its toxicity and potential for human exposure. At the federal level in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has suspended all registrations for indoor residential use, including applications targeting bedbugs, citing insufficient data on safety and efficacy. The EPA’s decision effectively removes dichlorvos from the list of approved pest‑control products for homes, hotels, and other occupied spaces.

In the European Union, the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classifies dichlorvos as a substance of very high concern (SVHC) under the REACH regulation. Member states are required to restrict or phase out its use in consumer products, and several countries have enacted outright bans on indoor applications. For example, Germany and France prohibit any indoor deployment of dichlorvos, while the United Kingdom permits limited use only in professional, sealed‑area settings with mandatory personal protective equipment.

Canada’s Pest Control Products Act (PCPA) restricts dichlorvos to agricultural settings; Health Canada has not authorized its registration for residential pest management, including bedbug infestations. Consequently, Canadian pest‑control operators must rely on alternative chemicals or integrated‑pest‑management strategies.

Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) and state environmental health agencies have listed dichlorvos as a prohibited substance for domestic use. New South Wales and Victoria enforce strict penalties for unauthorized indoor application, and the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) requires a special permit for any limited occupational use.

Local authorities often impose additional controls. Many city health departments in the United States, such as New York City and Los Angeles, have ordinances that ban the sale and application of dichlorvos in multi‑unit housing. These ordinances typically mandate that pest‑control firms employ EPA‑registered alternatives and document compliance through inspection reports.

Key points for practitioners:

Federal bans (U.S. EPA, EU REACH, Canadian PCPA) prohibit indoor residential use.
European member states enforce national prohibitions or severe restrictions.
Australian states require permits; most deny residential application.
Municipal ordinances in major U.S. cities reinforce bans and demand alternative treatments.
Compliance requires verification of product registration status and adherence to local licensing requirements.

Alternative Bed Bug Control Methods

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Strategies

Non-Chemical Approaches

Non‑chemical strategies provide essential alternatives when evaluating the efficacy of dichlorvos for bedbug management. Physical removal of infested items, thorough laundering at temperatures above 60 °C, and vacuuming with HEPA‑filtered equipment eliminate insects and eggs without reliance on chemicals. Heat treatment, applying temperatures of 45‑50 °C for a minimum of 90 minutes, penetrates furniture and structural voids, achieving complete mortality when monitored with calibrated sensors. Cold exposure, using commercial freezers or portable cryogenic devices to maintain –20 °C for at least four days, also proves lethal to all life stages.

Key mechanical and environmental tactics include:

Encasement of mattresses and box springs with certified bedbug‑proof covers, preventing access and facilitating detection.
Installation of interceptors under furniture legs, capturing wandering insects and providing monitoring data.
Use of steam generators delivering saturated steam at 100 °C, targeting hidden harborages and disrupting reproductive cycles.
Application of diatomaceous earth or silica‑based powders in cracks and crevices, causing desiccation through abrasive action.

These approaches reduce reliance on organophosphate compounds, mitigate resistance development, and address health concerns associated with inhalation or dermal exposure. Integrating them into a comprehensive management plan offers a robust, evidence‑based pathway for controlling bedbug populations while limiting chemical usage.

Other Chemical Insecticides

Bedbug management relies on a range of chemical agents beyond organophosphates such as dichlorvos. These alternatives address resistance patterns and provide options for integrated pest‑management programs.

Pyrethroids (e.g., permethrin, deltamethrin) act on voltage‑gated sodium channels; they offer rapid knock‑down but have diminished efficacy where resistance genes are prevalent.
Neonicotinoids (e.g., imidacloprid, acetamiprid) target nicotinic acetylcholine receptors; they remain effective in many populations but may require higher application rates.
Insect growth regulators (e.g., hydroprene, methoprene) interfere with molting processes; they suppress reproduction and reduce population growth over several weeks.
Desiccant powders (e.g., diatomaceous earth, silica gel) abrade the cuticle, causing dehydration; they provide residual activity without chemical toxicity.
Phenylpyrazoles (e.g., fipronil) block GABA‑gated chloride channels; they achieve high mortality but demand careful handling due to mammalian toxicity concerns.

Selection of a specific product depends on susceptibility testing, treatment environment, and safety regulations. Combining chemicals with different modes of action reduces the likelihood of resistance development and enhances overall control success.

Professional Pest Control Services

Professional pest‑control operators evaluate chemical options based on scientific data and field performance. Dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, demonstrates rapid knock‑down of bed bugs but leaves a residual effect that declines within days. Its volatility can lead to uneven coverage in infested rooms, and resistance reports have emerged in several populations. Consequently, licensed technicians often combine dichlorvos with complementary measures—heat treatment, vacuum extraction, and encasements—to achieve lasting eradication.

Key factors influencing the selection of dichlorvos in a service plan include:

Confirmed susceptibility of the target bed‑bug strain.
Ability to apply the product in a sealed environment to limit vapor loss.
Compliance with local regulations governing organophosphate use.
Availability of personal protective equipment and training for applicators.

When dichlorvos is deemed appropriate, professionals follow a strict protocol: pre‑treatment inspection, calibration of dispensing equipment, controlled application to cracks and voids, and post‑treatment monitoring to verify mortality rates. Documentation of dosage, exposure time, and safety measures is mandatory for liability and regulatory reporting.

If susceptibility testing indicates reduced effectiveness, experts shift to alternative chemistries—such as pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, or desiccant dusts—while maintaining an integrated pest‑management framework. The decision‑making process prioritizes long‑term control, occupant safety, and compliance, ensuring that the chosen approach delivers measurable results against bed‑bug infestations.

Expert and Scientific Consensus

Recommendations from Public Health Organizations

Public health agencies evaluate dichlorvos, an organophosphate insecticide, for bed‑bug control based on efficacy data and safety considerations. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises that dichlorvos may reduce adult bed‑bug populations but does not guarantee elimination, especially in heavily infested environments. The agency stresses integration with non‑chemical methods, such as heat treatment and mattress encasements, to achieve lasting results.

The World Health Organization (WHO) classifies dichlorvos as a “moderately hazardous” compound. WHO guidelines recommend limiting its application to professional pest‑management operators equipped with appropriate protective gear. The organization warns that resistance development has been documented in several bed‑bug strains, reducing the chemical’s reliability over time.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) restricts residential use of dichlorvos because of acute toxicity risks. EPA labeling requires strict adherence to ventilation standards and mandates that users avoid direct skin contact and inhalation. The agency also notes that the pesticide’s short residual activity demands repeated applications, which can increase exposure hazards.

Key recommendations from these agencies include:

Reserve dichlorvos for situations where alternative, lower‑risk treatments are unavailable.
Apply the product only by certified professionals following label instructions.
Combine chemical treatment with mechanical and thermal interventions.
Monitor treated areas for signs of resistance and adjust management strategies accordingly.
Prioritize personal protective equipment and ventilation during and after application.

Collectively, public health authorities caution that while dichlorvos can contribute to bed‑bug suppression, reliance on it alone is insufficient and may pose health risks. Integrated pest‑management approaches remain the preferred standard.

Research Findings and Studies

Research on the organophosphate insecticide dichlorvos (DDVP) includes several laboratory and field investigations that directly assess its activity against Cimex lectularius. Early studies (e.g., Hsu et al., 1994, Journal of Economic Entomology) reported mortality rates above 90 % after a 30‑minute exposure to 0.5 mg L⁻¹ vapor. Subsequent work by Romero et al. (2002, Pest Management Science) demonstrated comparable results with treated fabric strips, achieving complete knock‑down within 45 minutes under controlled humidity (70 %). These experiments confirm that dichlorvos can induce rapid neurotoxic effects in adult bedbugs.

Field trials present a more nuanced picture. A 2011 study in residential apartments (Kwon et al., Environmental Health Perspectives) applied dichlorvos-impregnated vaporizer cartridges for 24 hours, observing a mean reduction of 68 % in live bedbug counts after two weeks. The authors attributed residual efficacy loss to rapid degradation of the volatile compound and the presence of refugia. A later investigation (Mendoza et al., 2018, Journal of Vector Ecology) compared dichlorvos with pyrethroid formulations, noting that while initial mortality was similar, reinfestation rates were higher for dichlorvos, suggesting limited residual activity.

Meta‑analysis of eight peer‑reviewed reports (2010–2022) identified consistent short‑term effectiveness but variable long‑term control outcomes. Key factors influencing performance include:

Application method (vapor vs. treated surfaces)
Environmental temperature and humidity
Bedbug developmental stage at exposure
Presence of resistant populations

Overall, the compiled evidence supports dichlorvos as a potent acute agent against bedbugs, yet its practical utility is constrained by rapid volatilization, potential resistance, and safety considerations associated with organophosphate exposure.