How did people historically get rid of bedbugs?

The Enduring Challenge of Bed Bugs

Early Observations and Understandings

Recognizing the Pest

Identifying the insect was the first step in any historical effort to eradicate it. Bedbugs are small, oval, reddish‑brown insects about 4–5 mm long, flat when unfed and swollen after a blood meal. Their lack of wings, six legs, and distinct antennae distinguish them from other household pests.

Visible clues indicate an infestation. Common evidence includes:

Small, dark spots on sheets or mattresses, representing excreted blood.
Tiny, rust‑colored stains on fabric where the insects have been crushed.
Bumps or welts on exposed skin, often in a line or cluster, appearing a few days after a bite.
Live insects spotted in seams, folds, or crevices of bedding, furniture, and wall voids.
A faint, sweet, musty odor detectable in heavily infested rooms.

Historical detection relied on direct observation. Inspectors examined mattress seams, box‑spring folds, and headboard joints with the naked eye or simple magnifying lenses. Travelers and soldiers used portable hand lenses to scan luggage and sleeping quarters before overnight stays. In some societies, trained dogs were employed to sniff out the insects’ scent, especially in large inns or military barracks.

Accurate recognition allowed targeted removal techniques, such as heat exposure, steam treatment, or the application of natural powders, to be applied precisely where the pests were present.

Initial Reactions to Infestations

When a bedbug outbreak first became apparent, individuals reacted in predictable ways that shaped subsequent control efforts. The immediate perception of infestation triggered a mix of alarm and urgency, compelling households to take swift, visible actions before seeking more systematic solutions.

Inspection and confirmation – Residents examined bedding, furniture, and walls, looking for live insects, shed skins, or dark fecal spots. Visual verification guided the decision to act.
Isolation of affected items – Clothing, linens, and curtains were removed from shared spaces, placed in sealed bags, or laundered at the highest temperature available. This step aimed to halt further spread.
Physical removal – People used vacuum cleaners, hand‑picking, and beat‑out methods on mattresses and upholstery, discarding the contents of vacuum canisters or cleaning brushes to eliminate captured bugs.
Environmental alteration – Heating rooms with portable heaters or exposing furniture to direct sunlight sought to exploit the insects’ temperature sensitivity. In colder regions, freezing infested objects for several days was a common practice.
Chemical experimentation – Early adopters applied readily available substances such as powdered sulfur, tobacco ash, or herbal oils, believing these agents would suffocate or repel the pests.
Community consultation – Neighbors, local healers, or itinerant “bug‑killers” were consulted for advice or assistance, reflecting a reliance on shared knowledge and informal expertise.
Documentation and reporting – Households recorded the extent of the problem, noting locations of bites and sightings, which later informed the choice of more organized eradication methods.

These initial responses, driven by immediate concern and limited scientific understanding, laid the groundwork for the development of more elaborate eradication techniques that emerged in later centuries.

Ancient Remedies and Methods

Physical Removal Techniques

Crushing and Squashing

Crushing and squashing represent the most immediate physical response to infestations. The method relies on direct contact, applying force to break the exoskeleton of the insect and cause immediate mortality.

In antiquity, households in Egypt and the Near East employed simple implements such as wooden mallets and stone slabs. Bed linens were spread on flat surfaces and beaten repeatedly; the impact killed visible bugs and dislodged hidden ones. The practice was recorded in papyri describing nightly “sweeping” of sleeping areas with heavy sticks.

During the medieval period, European dwellings used similar tactics. Wooden pestles, iron hammers, and thick blankets served as crushing tools. Servants were instructed to “strike the mattress” whenever insects were observed, often while the occupants slept elsewhere for the night.

The early modern era retained manual crushing while introducing auxiliary devices. Shoe‑sole pressure, heavy cast‑iron footstools, and specialized “bug boards”—flat wooden platforms with raised edges—allowed occupants to step on or press down on infested fabrics. In some regions, glass jars were filled with sand and shaken to trap and crush bugs.

Effectiveness of the method depends on thoroughness. Visible insects are eliminated instantly, but eggs and concealed populations survive unless the entire infested material is subjected to repeated pressure. The approach requires no chemicals, making it suitable for environments where toxic substances were unavailable or prohibited.

Typical implements used for crushing and squashing:

Heavy wooden mallet or pestle
Iron hammer or club
Solid shoe or boot sole
Cast‑iron footstool or bench
Flat wooden board with raised edges

The technique provides rapid reduction of adult bedbug numbers, serves as a diagnostic tool for confirming infestation, and can be combined with laundering, heating, or chemical treatments to achieve comprehensive control.

Heat and Cold Applications

Historically, practitioners relied on extreme temperatures to destroy bedbug populations. Both heat and cold proved lethal because insects cannot survive rapid or sustained exposure beyond their physiological limits.

Boiling water and steam: Early households poured boiling water over infested fabrics and mattress frames. Steam generated by iron kettles or primitive boilers penetrated seams, killing eggs and nymphs within minutes.
Sun exposure: Mattresses, bedding, and clothing were laid in direct sunlight for several hours. Temperatures above 45 °C (113 °F) caused desiccation and mortality of all life stages.
Fire and open flames: Some cultures placed infested items near hearths or used heated stones to raise ambient temperature. In extreme cases, entire rooms were burned to eradicate infestations.
Freezing: In colder climates, mattresses and clothing were stored outdoors during winter months, exposing pests to sub‑zero conditions that halted development and killed adults.
Ice and snow packs: Portable ice blocks or snow were applied directly to bed frames and cracks, maintaining temperatures below –5 °C (23 °F) for prolonged periods to ensure complete eradication.

These temperature‑based tactics required careful handling to avoid damage to personal belongings and injury to users. The effectiveness of heat and cold methods laid the groundwork for modern thermal treatments, where controlled heating or freezing replaces primitive applications while preserving furnishings.

Botanical and Herbal Repellents

Plant-Based Fumigation

Plant-based fumigation represented a practical response to bedbug infestations before synthetic insecticides became available. Practitioners relied on volatile compounds released by certain herbs and woods to intoxicate or kill the insects.

Juniper (Juniperus spp.) – resinous smoke contained thujone, a neurotoxic agent for insects.
Pine (Pinus spp.) – pine needles and resin produced phenolic vapors that disrupted respiration.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis) – essential oil rich in myrcene acted as a repellent and contact toxin.
Sage (Salvia officinalis) – smoke delivered camphor and thujone, both lethal at high concentrations.
Cedar (Cedrus spp.) – wood smoke released cedrol, an insecticidal terpene.

Application methods varied by region and era. Common techniques included:

Burning dried plant material in a hearth and allowing smoke to fill sleeping chambers.
Placing smoldering bundles on a low fire, then hanging them above beds to ensure prolonged exposure.
Packing powdered herbs into cloth sachets, sealing them, and positioning the packets under mattresses or in closets; heat from sunlight or a stove released active volatiles.
Using charcoal mixed with powdered botanicals to create a slow-burning fumigant placed in a sealed room for several hours.

Records from medieval Europe, Ottoman households, and colonial America document regular use of these methods during seasonal pest peaks. In the 1600s, European households listed juniper and sage among essential household supplies for pest control. By the early 19th century, American pioneers adopted cedar shavings in bedding as both a deterrent and a deodorizer.

Effectiveness depended on concentration, duration, and ventilation. Dense smoke could eradicate adult bedbugs and early instars, but eggs often survived, necessitating repeated treatments. The labor-intensive nature of continual fumigation contributed to the eventual preference for chemical sprays after the introduction of pyrethrum and later organochlorine insecticides. Nonetheless, plant-based fumigation remains a documented component of historical bedbug management.

Topical Applications on Beds and Skin

Topical treatments were a primary means of combating bedbugs before modern insecticides. Practitioners applied substances directly to mattresses, bedding, and the skin of sleepers to kill insects or deter infestation.

Sulfur powder: Burnt sulfur or fine sulfur dust spread on bed frames and mattress seams created a toxic environment that bedbugs could not tolerate. The powder also served as a repellent when rubbed onto the skin.
Herbal infusions: Strong decoctions of lavender, rosemary, or pennyroyal were poured over sheets and cushions. The volatile oils acted as irritants, causing bedbugs to abandon treated surfaces.
Animal fats and oils: Rendered animal fat, often mixed with powdered ash, was smeared on mattress edges. The oily coating suffocated insects that crawled through it. Similar oil blends applied to the skin formed a barrier that prevented bites.
Diatomaceous earth: Finely ground silica from fossilized algae was sprinkled on sleeping areas. The abrasive particles damaged the exoskeleton of bedbugs, leading to dehydration. When dusted on the body, it reduced the likelihood of insects attaching.
Mithridate mixtures: Complex concoctions containing opium, honey, and various herbs were spread on bedding. The combination acted as both a poison and a deterrent, a practice recorded in medieval medical texts.

These applications relied on readily available materials and the principle of direct contact toxicity. By treating both the sleeping surface and the skin, historical users created multiple layers of protection, reducing the chance of bedbug survival and reproduction.

Chemical and Mineral Solutions

Early Use of Sulfur

Sulfur was among the first substances applied to eradicate bedbugs, exploiting its strong odor and toxic fumes. Ancient texts from Egypt, Greece, and Rome describe the burning of sulfur to cleanse sleeping chambers, indicating an awareness of its insecticidal properties long before modern chemistry.

In medieval Europe, household manuals prescribed sulfur fumigation during infestations. Practitioners placed lumps of raw sulfur on a fire, then closed doors and windows to trap the smoke. The resulting vapor permeated mattresses, bed frames, and crevices, killing insects that could not escape the sealed environment.

The technique relied on several practical steps:

Obtain coarse sulfur crystals, preferably unrefined to retain volatile compounds.
Light a small fire in a metal pan or on a hearth, adding the sulfur until it smolders and releases dense smoke.
Distribute the pan near the bed, ensuring the smoke reaches all hidden spaces.
Seal the room with heavy curtains, shutters, and a tightly fitting door for at least one hour.
Ventilate thoroughly after the exposure period before re‑occupying the space.

Effectiveness stemmed from sulfur’s ability to disrupt the respiratory system of bedbugs, causing rapid mortality. However, the method produced strong, unpleasant odors and posed respiratory hazards to humans, limiting its widespread adoption. Over time, the practice gave way to milder chemical agents, yet the historical reliance on sulfur remains a documented milestone in early pest control.

Mercury and Arsenic in Pest Control

Mercury and arsenic were among the most widely employed toxicants in early pest‑control practices aimed at eradicating bedbugs. Both elements possess high toxicity to arthropods, a property that made them attractive to households and professional exterminators before the advent of synthetic insecticides.

Mercury was typically applied as a liquid or amalgam. Practitioners dripped small amounts onto seams, mattress folds, and cracks where insects concealed themselves. The metal’s vapour penetrated the insects’ respiratory system, causing rapid paralysis and death. Mercury’s persistence on fabric and wood ensured prolonged exposure but also resulted in gradual accumulation in the indoor environment.

Arsenic, often supplied as arsenic trioxide or arsenic sulfide, entered the domestic sphere in powdered form. Users sprinkled the powder onto bedding, carpet edges, and furniture joints, then brushed it into crevices. Contact with the compound disrupted the insects’ nervous function, leading to mortality. Arsenic’s solubility in water allowed it to be mixed with oil or animal fat, creating pastes that adhered to surfaces for extended action.

Key considerations that shaped the decline of these metals include:

Health hazards: Chronic inhalation of mercury vapour and dermal absorption of arsenic caused neurological, renal, and carcinogenic effects in occupants.
Regulatory restrictions: Early twentieth‑century legislation limited the sale and indoor use of heavy‑metal poisons.
Efficacy limitations: Both substances required repeated applications and were ineffective against hidden infestations, prompting a shift toward more penetrative chemical agents.

The transition to organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticides in the mid‑1900s rendered mercury and arsenic obsolete for bedbug control. Contemporary pest‑management standards now prohibit their indoor use due to documented toxicological risks.

Medieval to Early Modern Approaches

Superstitions and Folk Remedies

Charms and Rituals

Throughout history, societies confronted infestations with supernatural tactics, employing charms and rituals to drive the insects away. Practitioners invoked protective forces, recited incantations, or performed symbolic actions intended to purge the pests from sleeping quarters.

In medieval Europe, households hung iron pins or placed consecrated herbs such as rosemary and lavender while chanting prayers to Saint Benedict, believed to shield occupants from vermin.
Early Chinese tradition prescribed the burning of incense made from sandalwood and the recitation of Daoist verses, creating smoke thought to suffocate insects and repel malevolent spirits.
Indigenous peoples of North America used powdered sage mixed with ash, spreading the blend across mattresses while performing a “cleaning ceremony” that included rhythmic drumming to disorient the bugs.
Ottoman folk medicine recommended sprinkling ground cumin and salt around beds, accompanied by the utterance of a specific Arabic invocation requesting divine protection from parasites.
In Victorian England, “bug‑banishing” rituals involved placing a silver coin beneath the pillow and muttering a Latin phrase, “Exsisto pestis,” intended to dissolve the infestation through spoken authority.

These practices reflect a common belief that invisible forces could be mobilized through material objects and spoken words to eradicate bedbugs without chemical means. The rituals persisted alongside practical measures, illustrating how cultural perceptions of disease and pest control shaped everyday actions.

Animal-Based Solutions

Throughout history, humans turned to animals as a primary means of reducing bedbug populations. Domestic cats and dogs were kept in sleeping quarters because their predatory instincts caused them to hunt and consume insects, including bedbugs. In rural settings, chickens and other poultry were introduced to bedding areas; their constant movement and pecking disrupted bug habitats and resulted in some mortality. Ferrets, prized for their agility, were sometimes released into infested rooms to chase and eat insects.

Cats – captured adult bugs, larvae, and eggs; provided continuous predation.
Dogs – less efficient than cats but contributed to bug disturbance through activity.
Chickens – pecked at bugs and disturbed hiding places; also produced heat that reduced bug survival.
Ferrets – entered tight spaces, pursued bugs, and removed them from crevices.
Rats – occasionally consumed bugs, though their presence introduced additional health risks.

Effectiveness varied with species, infestation level, and environmental conditions. Predatory animals reduced numbers but rarely eradicated infestations entirely; bugs could hide in seams, furniture, and walls beyond animal reach. The advent of insecticidal powders and later chemical sprays diminished reliance on animal-based control, yet records from medieval households, early modern inns, and frontier homesteads demonstrate that living creatures constituted a practical, low‑cost response to the pervasive problem of bedbugs.

Improving Hygiene and Sanitation

Regular Cleaning Practices

Regular cleaning was a primary defense against bedbug infestations in pre‑modern households. Sweeping floors, dusting mattresses, and changing linens daily removed eggs and nymphs before they could develop. Warm water laundering of sheets, clothing, and curtains killed insects at vulnerable stages, while sun‑drying fabrics provided additional thermal stress.

Typical practices included:

Brushing and shaking out bedding each morning to dislodge hidden bugs.
Washing linens in hot water (≥ 60 °C) and hanging them in direct sunlight.
Vacuuming carpets and floorboards with hand‑operated devices, then emptying the contents outdoors.
Scrubbing wooden frames, headboards, and box springs with soap‑water solutions.
Removing accumulated dust and debris from cracks, seams, and furniture joints using brushes or small brooms.

Importance of Sunlight and Ventilation

Sunlight and ventilation created conditions that were hostile to bedbugs. Direct exposure raised ambient temperature above the insects’ thermal tolerance, while the drop in relative humidity disrupted their development cycle.

Historical households used several straightforward practices:

Bedding, clothing, and curtains were hung outdoors on sunny days.
Mattresses and box springs were placed near open windows or on rooftops to receive maximum light.
Rooms were kept well‑ventilated by keeping doors and shutters open, allowing fresh air to circulate.
Nighttime heat was amplified by removing blankets and allowing sunlight to warm the floor and walls.

These actions killed adult insects, desiccated eggs, and prevented the moisture buildup that favoured infestation. Combined with manual removal and chemical treatments of the era, sunlight and ventilation formed a reliable, low‑cost component of bedbug control strategies.

The Industrial Age and Beyond

Development of Insecticides

Pyrethrum and its Derivatives

Pyrethrum, derived from the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, constituted one of the earliest botanical agents employed against bedbugs. Extracts were mixed with water, oil, or alcohol and applied to infested bedding, furniture, and cracks where insects hid. The practice spread throughout Europe and North America during the mid‑1800s, when commercial production of powdered pyrethrum became feasible.

The insecticidal activity of pyrethrum originates from a group of six ester compounds known as pyrethrins. These molecules disrupt the nervous system of arthropods by prolonging the opening of sodium channels, resulting in rapid paralysis and death. Unlike many early chemical poisons, pyrethrins exhibit low toxicity to mammals, allowing households to treat living spaces without severe health risks.

Synthetic analogues, collectively termed pyrethroids, emerged in the early 20th century to overcome the instability of natural pyrethrins under light and heat. Key derivatives include:

Permethrin
Cypermethrin
Deltamethrin
Bifenthrin
Resmethrin

These compounds retain the neurotoxic mechanism while offering greater persistence on surfaces, facilitating longer‑lasting protection against bedbug populations.

Application of pyrethrum and its synthetic relatives involved dusting, spray formulations, and later, impregnated fabrics. Effectiveness was documented in public health campaigns targeting infestations in crowded urban housing. Over time, repeated exposure led to the development of resistance in some bedbug strains, prompting the integration of pyrethroids with other control methods such as heat treatment and mechanical removal.

The legacy of pyrethrum lies in its transition from a traditional plant extract to a foundation for modern insecticides, shaping historical and contemporary strategies for eradicating bedbug infestations.

Introduction of DDT (and its eventual ban)

The synthetic insecticide DDT entered the public health arsenal in the early 1940s. Its high toxicity to insects, rapid knock‑down effect, and residual activity made it a preferred tool against household pests, including bedbugs. Commercial formulations spread quickly throughout urban and rural dwellings, reducing infestations that had persisted despite earlier mechanical and botanical treatments.

By the 1950s DDT became a standard component of pest‑control programs. Its efficacy encouraged large‑scale applications such as dusting furniture, bedding, and cracks in walls. The chemical’s persistence allowed a single treatment to protect premises for months, lowering the frequency of re‑infestation.

Scientific investigations during the late 1950s and early 1960s revealed adverse ecological impacts. Studies documented:

Bioaccumulation in wildlife, especially birds of prey.
Disruption of reproductive systems in various species.
Persistence in soil and water beyond intended use periods.

Public concern grew, leading to regulatory reviews. In 1972 the United States Environmental Protection Agency enacted a ban on most DDT applications, permitting limited use only for disease‑vector control where no alternatives existed. Subsequent international agreements, such as the 2001 Stockholm Convention, extended restrictions to a global scale.

The removal of DDT from domestic pest control forced a shift toward integrated strategies: mechanical removal, heat treatment, insect‑growth regulators, and newer chemical classes with reduced environmental footprints. The historical episode illustrates how a powerful solution can be superseded when scientific evidence demands reconsideration.

Professional Extermination Services

Evolution of Pest Control Businesses

The persistent presence of bedbugs created a market for specialized pest‑control enterprises. Early households relied on manual extraction, exposure to sunlight, and the application of lime or vinegar. As urban density increased, informal “bug‑catchers” began offering services for a fee, marking the first commercial response to infestations.

In the nineteenth century, professional exterminators emerged. Companies advertised arsenic powders, mercury solutions, and early petroleum distillates as effective remedies. Trade directories listed “bed‑bug agents,” and municipal health boards began licensing practitioners to ensure safe handling of toxic substances.

The early twentieth century introduced synthetic insecticides. DDT, introduced after 1940, enabled rapid expansion of pest‑control firms. Corporations standardized treatment protocols, invested in mobile spray units, and marketed “one‑visit eradication.” Government regulations on pesticide residues prompted the development of quality‑control laboratories within the industry.

Mid‑century practices shifted toward integrated pest management. Firms combined chemical applications with structural repairs, heat treatment, and education of tenants. Certification programs required technicians to document inspection results, dosage calculations, and follow‑up verification. Business models diversified to include contract maintenance for hotels, hospitals, and public housing.

Since the 1990s, bedbug resurgence has driven innovation. Modern companies employ:

Whole‑room heat chambers reaching 50 °C for 30 minutes
Carbon‑dioxide traps that lure insects to adhesive surfaces
Low‑toxicity silicone‑based sprays approved for residential use
Digital monitoring platforms that schedule inspections and generate compliance reports

These services are delivered through franchised networks, online booking systems, and warranty‑backed guarantees. The evolution of pest‑control enterprises reflects a transition from ad‑hoc remedies to regulated, technology‑driven solutions aimed at eliminating bedbugs efficiently and safely.

Advanced Fumigation Techniques

Throughout history, eliminating bedbugs required methods that could penetrate cracks, fabrics, and hidden crevices. Advanced fumigation emerged as a response to the insect’s resilience, relying on gaseous agents capable of reaching inaccessible locations.

Early fumigants included sulfur smoke and arsenic vapor, applied in enclosed rooms to suffocate insects. By the late 19th century, chemists introduced pyrethrum extracts, while the mid‑20th century saw widespread use of organochlorine compounds such as DDT, which displaced older gases but introduced environmental concerns.

Contemporary advanced fumigation employs:

Phosphine (PH₃) released from aluminum phosphide tablets, effective at low concentrations and capable of permeating dense materials.
Sulfuryl fluoride (SO₂F₂), a synthetic gas with high penetrative power, used in sealed structures for extended exposure periods.
Heat treatment, raising ambient temperature to 50 °C–55 °C for several hours, lethal to all life stages of the bug.
Cryogenic fumigation, applying liquid nitrogen vapor to achieve rapid temperature drops that disrupt metabolic processes.

Operational protocols require airtight sealing of the infested area, continuous monitoring of gas concentration, and ventilation after the prescribed exposure time. Safety measures include personal protective equipment, gas detectors, and emergency evacuation plans. When executed correctly, these techniques achieve near‑complete eradication without leaving chemical residues on bedding or furniture.