How were bed bugs historically controlled in homes?

Early Understanding of Bed Bugs

Ancient Perceptions and Superstitions

Ancient societies regarded bed‑bug infestations as signs of impurity, malevolent spirits, or divine punishment. Egyptians linked the insects to the goddess Isis, believing that incense and sacred oils could appease offending deities. Greek physicians described the bugs as carriers of disease, recommending fumigation with aromatic herbs to cleanse the household. Romans employed iron nails and salt, interpreting their protective properties as magical barriers against nocturnal pests. In early Chinese texts, bed bugs were associated with restless ancestors; remedies included burning mugwort and placing paper talismans over sleeping areas. Medieval Islamic scholars described the insects as “the devils of the night,” prescribing the use of rosemary, clove oil, and verses from the Qur’an to drive them away.

Typical ancient countermeasures derived from superstition:

Burning fragrant woods (e.g., sandalwood, frankincense) to create protective smoke.
Sprinkling salt or ash around beds as a purifying barrier.
Hanging iron objects or placing metal sheets beneath mattresses to repel the pests.
Applying herbal poultices of rosemary, mint, or mugwort directly to bedding.
Displaying written prayers, amulets, or verses near sleeping quarters.

These practices combined observable effects of heat, scent, and desiccation with cultural beliefs that framed bed bugs as supernatural threats, shaping early household control strategies.

Identification Challenges in the Past

In earlier centuries, recognizing bed‑bug infestations proved difficult because the insects were small, nocturnal, and concealed in crevices. Lack of standardized taxonomy meant that many households confused them with fleas, moth larvae, or harmless house dust. Visual inspection relied on untrained eyes; without magnifying devices, adults and nymphs were often missed, especially during the day when they hide.

Key factors that hindered accurate identification included:

Absence of reliable reference illustrations or field guides.
Limited public awareness of the bug’s distinctive reddish‑brown color and flat, oval shape.
Overlap of feeding signs with other pests, such as bite marks mistaken for mosquito or flea bites.
Inadequate lighting in homes, preventing detection of the insects’ nocturnal activity.
Reliance on anecdotal reports rather than systematic observation.

These obstacles delayed appropriate control measures, allowing populations to expand before homeowners realized the true nature of the problem.

Traditional Methods of Control

Physical Removal and Sanitation

Manual Collection and Crushing

Manual collection and crushing represented the most immediate response to bed‑bug infestations before chemical insecticides became available. Residents inspected mattresses, box springs, and furniture seams, extracting visible insects with fingers, tweezers, or small brushes. The insects were then crushed between hard surfaces, such as a book, a wooden board, or a heavy pot, to kill them instantly. Crushing also disrupted the bug’s exoskeleton, preventing egg laying and reducing the immediate population.

Typical practice involved several actions:

Systematic visual sweep of sleeping areas each night or after suspected bites.
Use of a bright lamp or candle to illuminate dark crevices, improving detection.
Application of a fine‑toothed comb or stiff brush to dislodge bugs from fabric folds.
Immediate crushing of each specimen, often on a hard tabletop, to ensure rapid mortality.
Disposal of crushed remains in sealed containers or ash to avoid re‑infestation.

These methods relied on diligent observation and physical effort, offering a low‑cost, immediate means of control in households lacking modern pest‑management resources.

Hot Water and Steam Treatments

Hot water and steam have long been employed to eliminate bed‑bug infestations in residential settings. Early 20th‑century households relied on boiling water for laundering bedding, curtains, and clothing; temperatures of 60 °C (140 °F) and above proved lethal to all life stages within minutes. Steam‑based treatments emerged with the advent of portable steam generators in the 1960s, allowing direct application to mattresses, furniture seams, and wall cracks where insects hide.

Key characteristics of thermal methods:

Temperature threshold: Sustained heat of 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) for at least 30 minutes kills eggs; 55–60 °C (131–140 °F) for 10 minutes eliminates nymphs and adults.
Penetration depth: Steam penetrates porous fabrics and wood grain more effectively than hot water, reaching hidden crevices.
Equipment: Traditional kettles, large‑capacity washers, and modern handheld steam cleaners provide the required heat; professional units can maintain 100 °C (212 °F) steam for extended periods.
Limitations: Heat must be evenly distributed; insulated or heavily stuffed items may retain cooler cores, requiring repeated cycles or complementary methods.

Historical practice combined thorough washing of linens with steam exposure of furniture, reducing populations without chemical residues. Modern resurgence of thermal control reflects the same principles, emphasizing precise temperature control and adequate exposure time to achieve complete eradication.

Vacuuming and Brushing

Vacuuming emerged as one of the earliest mechanical tactics against domestic infestations. Early 20th‑century portable suction devices allowed homeowners to extract adult insects, nymphs, and eggs from seams, mattress tufts, and floor cracks. The process removed live specimens and dislodged hidden stages, reducing the population that could re‑establish after treatment. Operators emptied canisters or bags outdoors to prevent reinfestation, and repeated cycles were recommended to interrupt the life cycle.

Brushing complemented suction by loosening insects adhered to fabric fibers and wood grain. Manual brushes, often with stiff bristles, were employed to agitate mattress covers, upholstery, and baseboard crevices before vacuuming. The agitation dislodged bugs that a suction head alone might miss, especially in dense materials where insects hide under seams or within stitching. Historical guides instructed users to:

Brush each affected surface thoroughly, moving in overlapping strokes.
Follow immediately with vacuum suction to capture dislodged insects.
Dispose of brushed debris in sealed containers or outside the dwelling.

Combined, these techniques formed a low‑technology, repeatable method that relied on physical removal rather than chemicals, reflecting the practical constraints of early domestic pest management.

Sunlight Exposure and Drying

Sunlight exposure and drying constituted a primary non‑chemical strategy for reducing bed‑bug populations in residential settings before the advent of modern insecticides. Direct solar radiation raises surface temperatures to levels that exceed the thermal tolerance of adult insects and nymphs, while ultraviolet light damages their cuticle and nervous system. Simultaneously, prolonged exposure to low‑humidity conditions accelerates desiccation, depriving the pests of the moisture required for survival.

Practitioners applied this method by placing infested objects in open air for extended periods. Typical practices included:

Lining mattresses, box springs, and upholstered furniture on rooftops or balconies for several hours on sunny days.
Hanging curtains, bedding, and clothing on outdoor lines to allow both heat and wind to act on hidden insects.
Leaving infested luggage, crates, or wooden frames in direct sunlight for a full day, often rotating items to ensure uniform exposure.

Effectiveness depended on ambient temperature, sunlight intensity, and duration of exposure. In temperate climates, the approach proved most reliable during late spring and summer, when daytime temperatures regularly reached 30 °C (86 °F) or higher. Winter months, overcast conditions, and high humidity reduced the method’s efficacy, prompting households to combine sunlight treatment with other tactics such as heat‑generated steam or chemical powders.

Overall, sunlight and drying offered a low‑cost, readily available means of suppressing bed‑bug infestations, especially when environmental conditions favored sustained high temperatures and low moisture. The technique’s simplicity made it a staple of historical domestic pest control, despite its seasonal limitations.

Botanical and Natural Repellents

Plant-Based Fumigants and Incense

Plant-derived smoke and incense were among the earliest domestic remedies against bed‑bug infestations. Early societies burned aromatic herbs, resins, and woods to suffocate insects and disrupt their sensory receptors.

Common botanical fumigants included:

Juniper berries – heated to release volatile oils that irritate the bug’s nervous system.
Pine needles and sap – generated dense smoke that penetrated cracks and crevices.
Myrtle and sage – burned for their strong, insect‑repellent aroma.
Cedar shavings – placed in closets and mattresses; the natural chemicals deterred colonization.
Frankincense and myrrh – resinous incense used in Mediterranean homes; smoke created an environment hostile to bugs.

Application methods relied on simple household tools: charcoal brazier, earthenware pots, or open hearths. Smoke was directed into sleeping chambers, under bed frames, and into seams of upholstery. Repeated exposure over several days reduced populations and prevented re‑infestation.

Historical records from medieval Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia describe ritualized fumigation ceremonies, often timed with seasonal cleaning. The practice persisted into the 19th century until chemical insecticides became prevalent. Contemporary research confirms that many of these plant volatiles possess neurotoxic or repellant properties, validating their long‑standing use in home pest management.

Herbs and Folk Remedies

Herbal and folk practices formed a primary line of defense against household infestations of Cimex species long before chemical insecticides became available. Practitioners relied on plants whose volatile oils or strong aromas repelled or killed the insects, often applying them directly to bedding, cracks, and furniture.

Dried lavender (Lavandula angustifolia): Sprinkled in mattress seams and stored linens; the scent interferes with bed bug navigation and reduces feeding activity.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) leaves: Burned as a smudge or placed in sachets; the smoke and essential oil act as a contact irritant.
Mint (Mentha spp.) leaves or essential oil: Distributed in drawers and under bed frames; menthol compounds disrupt the insects’ respiratory system.
Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) oil: Applied in diluted form to crevices; eugenol exhibits toxic properties that cause mortality upon contact.
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and oregano (Origanum vulgare) dried foliage: Layered beneath mattresses; thymol and carvacrol create an inhospitable environment.
Cedar shavings: Placed in box springs and storage boxes; natural phenols deter habitation.

Preparation methods varied regionally. Common techniques included drying herbs, grinding them into powders, infusing them in hot water to produce sprays, and creating oil tinctures for direct application. In many cultures, herbal bundles were burned nightly, generating smoke that penetrated hidden cracks where bugs concealed themselves.

Effectiveness depended on concentration, thoroughness of coverage, and persistence of treatment. While herbs reduced population levels and prevented new infestations, they rarely eradicated established colonies without repeated application. Historical records indicate that successful control required integrating multiple herbs, regular laundering of textiles, and physical removal of infested materials.

Chemical and Material Interventions

Early Insecticides and Powders

Early attempts to suppress bed‑bug infestations relied on readily available mineral and botanical powders. Practitioners mixed finely ground sulfur with ash or lime and scattered the blend across mattresses, floorboards, and cracks. When ignited, sulfur produced a fumigant cloud that penetrated bedding seams, killing insects on contact. Lime powder, applied in a dry layer, created an alkaline environment unsuitable for bed‑bug development; repeated applications were necessary to maintain effectiveness.

Botanical powders offered a complementary approach. Dried pyrethrum flowers, crushed into fine dust, released natural pyrethrins that paralyzed insects upon contact. Cedar shavings and oil, ground into a powder, were spread in storage chests and under bed frames, exploiting the resinous compounds that deterred bugs. Tobacco ash, abundant in households, served both as a drying agent and as a mild irritant when sprinkled on infested areas.

The following substances constituted the core of early domestic pest control:

Sulfur powder, often combined with ash or lime, used for fumigation and direct contact.
Calcium carbonate (chalk) and hydrated lime, applied as dry barriers.
Pyrethrum dust, derived from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, employed for its rapid knock‑down effect.
Cedar powder or oil, providing repellent properties.
Tobacco ash, utilized for its desiccating action.

Effectiveness depended on thorough coverage, repeated treatment, and the removal of clutter where insects could hide. These primitive formulations laid the groundwork for later chemical insecticides, shaping household pest‑management practices for centuries.

Use of Kerosene and Other Flammables

Kerosene and other flammable liquids were among the earliest domestic remedies for bed‑bug infestations. In the 1800s and early 1900s, households without modern insecticides relied on readily available fuels to kill insects and their eggs.

The typical applications included:

Direct application – droplets of kerosene or petroleum spirit were poured onto mattress seams, box springs, and upholstered furniture. Contact with the liquid caused rapid desiccation of the bugs.
Soaking of textiles – curtains, bedding, and clothing were immersed in hot kerosene solutions, then hung to dry in sunlight. The combination of chemical toxicity and heat increased mortality rates.
Fumigation – a small amount of gasoline, kerosene, or turpentine was ignited in a sealed room, producing a dense vapor that penetrated cracks and crevices. The smoke killed hidden insects and prevented re‑infestation for a short period.
Thermal treatment – beds were covered with heated metal trays or iron plates that had been soaked in kerosene and set alight. The intense heat, augmented by the flammable coating, exterminated bugs on contact.

These methods carried significant hazards. Open flames near bedding risked accidental fires; inhalation of vapors caused respiratory irritation; and the residues left on fabrics could damage fibers and create long‑term health concerns. By the 1930s, the emergence of synthetic insecticides such as DDT reduced reliance on flammable liquids, and public health guidelines began to discourage their use due to safety and efficacy issues.

The historical reliance on kerosene and similar fuels illustrates the improvisational nature of early domestic pest control, where accessibility and immediate lethality outweighed considerations of toxicity and fire risk.

Diatomaceous Earth and Similar Substances

Diatomaceous earth, a fine powder composed of fossilized diatom shells, entered domestic pest‑control practices in the late 1800s. Early advertisements promoted it as a “natural insecticide,” and household manuals described spreading a thin layer in cracks, under mattresses, and along baseboards to combat bed‑bug infestations. Its abrasive particles puncture the insects’ cuticle, causing rapid loss of moisture.

The material works by physical desiccation rather than chemical toxicity. When a bed bug contacts the powder, the sharp silica edges scrape away the waxy coating that prevents water loss. The insect then dehydrates and dies within hours, provided the environment remains dry.

Historical records indicate that users mixed diatomaceous earth with other readily available powders to improve adherence or reduce dust. Common combinations included:

Diatomaceous earth plus powdered charcoal – enhanced absorption of oils on the insect surface.
Diatomaceous earth blended with powdered chalk – lowered cost while preserving abrasive action.
Diatomaceous earth mixed with powdered talc – increased flowability for even distribution.

Substances with comparable desiccant properties were also employed. These included:

Silica gel beads, crushed to a powder, applied in seams and crevices.
Boric acid, ground to a fine dust, scattered around sleeping areas.
Wood ash, collected from hearths, spread beneath furniture.
Limestone dust, used in rural homes where quarry material was accessible.

Application required a dry environment; moisture neutralized the abrasive effect by coating particles and preventing cuticle damage. Users reapplied the powder after cleaning or after rain‑induced humidity. Safety guidelines from the period warned against inhalation and advised wearing cloth masks during spreading.

Overall, diatomaceous earth and its analogues represented a low‑cost, chemically inert option for household bed‑bug control before the advent of modern synthetic insecticides. Their effectiveness depended on thorough coverage, sustained dryness, and repeated treatment cycles.

Sealing Cracks and Crevices

Sealing cracks and crevices was a primary preventive measure against bed‑bug infestations in residential settings before the advent of chemical insecticides. Early homeowners identified gaps around baseboards, window frames, door thresholds, and wall joints as the most frequent pathways for insects to reach sleeping areas. By eliminating these passages, they reduced the likelihood that adult bugs could enter or that nymphs could disperse.

Typical sealing materials and techniques included:

Lime‑based plaster applied to masonry cracks; lime’s high pH created an inhospitable surface for insects.
Wood putty or tar used to fill gaps in timber framing, especially in older cottages with uneven joinery.
Waxed rope or rags pressed into narrow fissures where liquid sealants could not reach.
Early caulking compounds composed of animal hide glue mixed with soot or ash, hardened to form a tight barrier.

Implementation followed a systematic process:

Inspect all structural seams, focusing on areas adjacent to beds, upholstery, and storage furniture.
Clean debris and dust from each opening to ensure adhesion of the sealing medium.
Apply the chosen material, pressing firmly to fill the space completely.
Allow the sealant to cure fully before re‑installing furniture or bedding.

Historical records from the 18th‑ and 19th‑century domestic manuals describe these practices as essential for maintaining a “bug‑free” household. By reducing the number of accessible refuges, sealing limited the insects’ ability to hide during daylight hours and impeded their spread between rooms. Consequently, the method contributed significantly to the overall effectiveness of non‑chemical control strategies employed at the time.

Professional and Community Approaches

Role of Exterminators and Public Health Initiatives

Professional pest‑control firms emerged in the late 1800s as urban housing densified and infestations threatened property values. Early exterminators employed readily available poisons—arsenic, mercuric chloride, and later pyrethrum extracts—applied as dusts or sprays directly to mattress seams, furniture joints, and wall cracks. Their advertisements emphasized rapid eradication, and city directories listed licensed “bug‑killers” who responded to homeowner requests.

Municipal health departments instituted several initiatives to curb bed‑bug spread. These programs included:

Mandatory inspection of boarding houses and tenements during health‑code surveys.
Distribution of pamphlets describing detection signs and simple sanitation practices, such as regular laundering of bedding at high temperatures.
Funding of collective treatment campaigns in neighborhoods with documented outbreaks, often coordinating multiple private operators to ensure uniform application of insecticidal dusts.
Establishment of reporting mechanisms whereby tenants could alert authorities to infestations, prompting official follow‑up and, when necessary, legal action against landlords who failed to remediate.

Collaboration between private exterminators and public agencies produced standardized treatment protocols. Licensing requirements mandated training in safe handling of chemicals and documentation of each service call. Health officials supplied bulk insecticide stocks at reduced cost, while exterminators supplied expertise in locating hidden harborage sites. This partnership reduced duplicate efforts and created a measurable decline in reported cases during the early 20th century.

The legacy of these historical measures informs current integrated pest‑management strategies. Modern public‑health campaigns retain the inspection‑report‑treat cycle, while professional operators now favor low‑toxicity products and heat‑treatment technologies. The combined legacy demonstrates that coordinated private and governmental action historically achieved measurable control of domestic bed‑bug populations.

Legislation and Regulations for Pest Control

Legislation governing domestic pest control emerged alongside urbanization and public‑health reforms. Early municipal ordinances required landlords to maintain sanitary conditions and to address infestations that threatened occupants’ health. By the early 1900s, city health departments issued inspection protocols that listed bed‑bug eradication as a mandatory service for rental properties.

National statutes later standardized chemical use. The United States enacted the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) in 1947, obligating manufacturers to register products and providing the EPA authority to evaluate safety and efficacy. Similar legislation appeared in the United Kingdom with the Pest Control Products Regulations 2006, aligning national law with EU directives on pesticide approval.

Key regulatory milestones include:

1918 – U.S. Public Health Service guidelines recommending steam and heat treatment for infested dwellings.
1935 – British Housing Acts mandated regular pest‑inspection reports for council housing.
1972 – EPA bans on organochlorine insecticides (e.g., DDT) reduced reliance on broad‑spectrum chemicals, prompting development of targeted formulations.
1997 – EU Directive 98/8/EC introduced a risk‑assessment framework for all pest‑control products, influencing member‑state licensing procedures.
2015 – U.S. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) guidelines incorporated into state-level licensing exams, emphasizing non‑chemical methods such as encasements and heat remediation.

Contemporary regulations require pest‑control operators to obtain certification, adhere to label instructions, and document treatment outcomes. Many jurisdictions impose penalties for non‑compliance, including fines and loss of license. Enforcement agencies conduct periodic audits, verify record‑keeping, and may mandate follow‑up inspections after reported bed‑bug incidents.

Overall, statutory measures have shifted from prescriptive extermination techniques toward risk‑based, evidence‑driven approaches that balance efficacy with environmental and health safeguards.

Housing Design and Materials Affecting Infestations

Throughout history, the architecture of dwellings and the choice of construction materials directly influenced the prevalence of bed‑bug populations. Early timber frames, thatch roofs, and woven wall coverings created numerous seams, cracks, and cavities where insects could hide. The lack of smooth, impermeable surfaces allowed larvae and adults to establish colonies in joints, floorboards, and decorative moldings. Consequently, occupants relied on structural modifications—such as sealing gaps with plaster, replacing thatch with slate, or installing tightly fitted paneling—to reduce refuges and limit spread.

Key material‑related strategies that emerged include:

Replacing porous wood with hardwood or metal studs to eliminate hollow channels.
Applying lime‑based plaster to walls and ceilings, producing a hard, alkaline surface hostile to insects.
Installing raised or suspended flooring, which facilitated cleaning and exposure of hidden insects.
Using tightly woven textiles for curtains and bedding, decreasing the number of fabric folds that could harbor eggs.

Design interventions complemented chemical and mechanical measures, forming an integrated approach that leveraged the physical environment to suppress infestations. By altering building envelopes and interior finishes, historical households achieved a measurable decline in bed‑bug activity without relying solely on pesticide application.

Evolution of Control Strategies

Impact of Scientific Discoveries on Pest Management

Early domestic attempts to eliminate bed bugs relied on physical and chemical means that lacked scientific grounding. Heat exposure from fire pits, boiling water, and later steam generators produced mortality through thermal shock. Mechanical actions such as beating mattresses, vacuuming, and manual removal addressed infestations without understanding insect life cycles. Crude chemicals—sulfur, arsenic compounds, and later pyrethrum—were applied indiscriminately, often causing damage to furnishings and health hazards.

Scientific advances reshaped these practices. Key discoveries include:

Identification of the bed bug’s developmental stages, revealing that eggs and nymphs require targeted treatment.
Development of synthetic insecticides (DDT, organophosphates) based on knowledge of nervous‑system disruption.
Recognition of resistance mechanisms, prompting the formulation of newer chemistries (neonicotinoids, pyrethroids) and the use of synergists.
Elucidation of habitat preferences, leading to improved monitoring tools such as intercept traps and heat‑mapping devices.

The integration of these findings produced a systematic approach known as Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM combines accurate detection, selective chemical application, environmental manipulation (temperature control, clutter reduction), and regular evaluation of treatment efficacy. By aligning control methods with scientific evidence, modern homeowners achieve higher success rates while minimizing chemical exposure and delaying resistance development.

Shift from Traditional to Modern Methods

Bed bug management in domestic environments began with simple, labor‑intensive techniques. Early homeowners relied on mechanical removal, such as beating infested fabrics, steaming mattresses, and exposing rooms to direct sunlight. Chemical options were limited to herbal extracts, sulfur fumes, and later, organochlorine insecticides like DDT, applied by hand or in powder form. These measures achieved temporary relief but often failed to eradicate hidden populations, leading to recurring infestations.

The transition to contemporary practices introduced systematic, science‑based strategies. Modern control emphasizes early detection, precise application, and reduced reliance on broad‑spectrum chemicals. Key components include:

Heat treatment: raising ambient temperature to 50 °C for several hours to kill all life stages.
Integrated pest management (IPM): combining monitoring devices, habitat reduction, and targeted insecticide use.
Encasements: sealing mattresses and box springs with impermeable covers to prevent colonization.
Professional pesticide formulations: using pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, or desiccant dusts with proven efficacy against resistant strains.
Education and reporting: informing occupants about prevention, reporting signs promptly, and coordinating with pest‑control professionals.

The shift reflects a move from reactive, anecdotal methods to coordinated, evidence‑based interventions that address resistance, minimize health risks, and improve long‑term outcomes in residential settings.

Persistent Challenges and Adaptations

Throughout centuries, households confronted recurring obstacles when attempting to eradicate bed‑bugs. Early reliance on heat, steam, and vigorous cleaning proved insufficient because insects concealed themselves in mattress seams, wall cracks, and furniture joints, locations inaccessible to simple washing or brushing. Overcrowded living conditions amplified the problem; close proximity facilitated rapid spread between adjacent rooms and dwellings, rendering isolated treatments ineffective.

Adaptations emerged as residents refined techniques to address these limitations. Practices such as:

Repeated laundering of bedding at the highest possible temperature, followed by prolonged drying,
Application of powdered substances (e.g., diatomaceous earth, powdered sulfur) directly into crevices,
Use of oil‑based repellents to suffocate insects,
Installation of protective mattress encasements to block re‑infestation,

demonstrated a pattern of incremental improvement. Each method targeted a specific vulnerability in the pest’s life cycle, yet none achieved complete eradication on its own.

Persistent challenges intensified with the advent of chemical control. Early insecticides, notably pyrethrum and later organochlorines, initially reduced populations dramatically. However, bed‑bugs rapidly developed physiological resistance, diminishing efficacy after repeated exposure. In response, users combined chemicals with non‑chemical tactics, rotated active ingredients, and increased treatment frequency. This integrated approach reflected an adaptive strategy aimed at overcoming resistance while minimizing collateral damage to occupants.

Social and economic factors also shaped control efforts. Limited financial resources constrained access to professional exterminators, prompting reliance on DIY solutions that varied in effectiveness. Urban migration introduced new vectors, as travelers inadvertently transported insects in luggage and clothing, perpetuating cycles of re‑infestation despite local successes.

Overall, the historical record reveals a continuous interplay between stubborn obstacles—hidden habitats, resistance development, and socioeconomic constraints—and adaptive measures that evolved to mitigate those threats. The pattern underscores the necessity of multifaceted, repeatable interventions to sustain long‑term suppression of bed‑bugs in domestic environments.