What are Bedbugs?
Understanding the Bedbug Life Cycle
«Egg Stage»
The egg stage represents the initial phase of the bedbug life cycle. Eggs are oval, approximately 0.5 mm in length, and appear white to pale yellow. Their shells are smooth, lacking visible markings, and become slightly translucent as embryonic development progresses.
Eggs are deposited in secure, concealed locations. Typical sites include seams of mattresses, folds of fabric, cracks in headboards, and behind wallpaper. Female bedbugs prefer areas that provide protection from disturbance and maintain stable humidity. Clusters of 5–10 eggs are often found together, attached to a substrate by a gelatinous secretion that hardens to secure the clutch.
The purpose of the egg stage is to ensure species propagation. After an incubation period of 6–10 days, depending on temperature and humidity, each egg hatches into a first‑instar nymph. This rapid development enables populations to expand swiftly when conditions are favorable.
«Nymph Stages»
Bedbugs undergo incomplete metamorphosis, progressing through five successive nymphal instars before reaching adulthood. Each instar resembles a smaller version of the adult, retaining the characteristic flat, oval body and reddish‑brown coloration, but differing in size and degree of pigmentation.
- First instar: approximately 1 mm long, translucent to pale brown, exoskeleton soft, requires a blood meal to molt.
- Second instar: 1.5–2 mm, darker hue, still semi‑transparent, second blood meal needed.
- Third instar: 2–3 mm, coloration approaching adult shade, third blood meal required.
- Fourth instar: 3–4 mm, fully pigmented, fourth blood meal necessary.
- Fifth instar: 4–5 mm, indistinguishable from adult except for reproductive organs, final blood meal before adult emergence.
Nymphs occupy the same microhabitats as adults, favoring concealed crevices near host resting areas. Typical shelters include mattress seams, box‑spring folds, headboard cracks, furniture joints, baseboard gaps, and wallpaper edges. Their small size enables penetration into tighter fissures, providing protection from disturbance and facilitating access to blood sources.
The presence of nymphs indicates active reproduction. Adult females lay eggs in protected sites; hatching produces first‑instar nymphs. Each successful blood meal triggers molting, advancing the insect to the next stage. Environmental factors such as temperature, availability of hosts, and hygiene conditions influence the rate of development, accelerating population expansion when conditions are optimal.
«Adult Stage»
The adult bedbug measures 4–5 mm in length, exhibits a flattened oval body, and displays a reddish‑brown hue that darkens after feeding. Its dorsal surface bears fine hairs and a pair of wing‑like structures called hemelytra, which are non‑functional for flight. The insect possesses a slender, beak‑like proboscis adapted for piercing skin and extracting blood.
Typical hiding sites for mature individuals include:
- seams and tufts of mattresses,
- cracks in bed frames and headboards,
- upholstery folds and cushion seams,
- baseboard crevices and wall voids,
- luggage compartments and travel bags.
Adults emerge primarily because the life cycle progresses from egg to nymph to mature stage when environmental temperatures exceed 20 °C and a reliable host is present. Blood meals trigger molting, and successful reproduction introduces new eggs, perpetuating infestation. Human activity that transports infested items, combined with warm, humid indoor conditions, accelerates population growth.
How to Identify Bedbugs
«Physical Characteristics of Adult Bedbugs»
«Size and Shape»
Bedbugs measure approximately 4–5 mm in length and about 2.5 mm in width when unfed, resembling a small, flat oval. Their bodies are dorsoventrally compressed, allowing them to slip easily into narrow crevices. After a blood meal, the abdomen expands to roughly 7–8 mm, giving the insect a visibly swollen, rounded appearance.
The species progresses through five nymphal stages, each smaller than the adult but maintaining the characteristic oval silhouette. Nymphs range from 1 mm at emergence to 3 mm before the final molt, and they lack the fully developed wing‑like extensions seen in other hemipterans.
Key dimensions and morphological traits:
- Length: 4–5 mm (adult, unfed); 7–8 mm (engorged).
- Width: ≈ 2.5 mm (adult, unfed).
- Shape: flat, oval, laterally compressed.
- Color: reddish‑brown; darkens to deep mahogany after feeding.
- Nymph size: 1–3 mm, retaining adult‑like shape.
These measurements enable reliable identification of bedbugs in homes, distinguishing them from similar insects such as carpet beetles or cockroach nymphs. The compact, flattened form facilitates concealment in mattress seams, furniture joints, and wall cracks, directly supporting their success as human parasites.
«Coloration»
Bedbugs exhibit a flat, oval body about 4–5 mm long, covered by a smooth exoskeleton that ranges from reddish‑brown to deep mahogany. The pigmentation derives from a mixture of melanin and hemoglobin‑derived compounds, giving the insects a uniform hue that blends with the wooden, fabric, or paper surfaces they frequent.
After a blood meal, the abdomen expands and the insect’s overall tone lightens, often appearing a paler, almost translucent shade. This temporary shift results from the influx of ingested blood diluting the cuticular pigments. When unfed, the dark coloration re‑asserts itself as the abdomen contracts.
The dark‑brown coloration provides effective camouflage in typical refuges:
- Cracks and crevices in walls or furniture, where shadows dominate.
- Upholstery seams and mattress tags, whose textured surfaces scatter light.
- Baseboard gaps and floorboard joints, characterized by low‑light conditions.
Camouflage reduces visual detection by both humans and potential predators, allowing bedbugs to remain undisturbed during daylight hours.
«Coloration» also influences infestation dynamics. The cryptic appearance delays early identification, enabling populations to reach reproductive capacity before intervention. Recognizing the characteristic hue—especially the post‑feeding pallor—facilitates timely inspection and targeted control measures.
«Anatomy»
Bedbugs are small, wingless insects measuring approximately 4–5 mm in length. Their bodies are oval and dorsoventrally flattened, facilitating insertion into narrow crevices. The exoskeleton exhibits a reddish‑brown hue that darkens after a blood meal. Anatomically, the insect is divided into head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears a pair of short antennae and a beak‑like proboscis equipped with stylets for piercing skin. Six legs emerge from the thorax, each ending in a claw that enhances grip on fabric fibers. The abdomen contains the digestive tract and reproductive organs; after feeding, it expands noticeably, giving the insect a swollen appearance.
Typical refuge sites include:
- seams and tufts of mattresses or box springs
- cracks in bed frames, headboards, and wall–floor junctions
- upholstery folds and sofa cushions
- behind picture frames, electrical outlets, and baseboards
Infestations arise primarily from:
- transportation of infested luggage, clothing, or used furniture
- high‑density living conditions that promote rapid spread between adjacent units
- inadequate early detection, allowing populations to establish before treatment
- lack of regular cleaning in cluttered environments, which provides abundant hiding places
Understanding the anatomical features that enable concealment and rapid feeding clarifies why bedbugs persist in human habitats and informs targeted control measures.
«Signs of Infestation»
«Fecal Spots»
«Fecal Spots» are tiny, dark specks left by bedbugs after feeding. They appear as 0.5‑1 mm dots, often black or brown, resembling pepper grains. The color results from digested blood that solidifies in the insect’s gut and is expelled through the anus.
Typical locations include seams of mattresses, box‑spring edges, headboard cracks, and folds of furniture upholstery. Spots also accumulate in baseboard crevices, behind picture frames, and within luggage compartments. Concentrations near potential harborage sites indicate active feeding activity.
The presence of «Fecal Spots» signals that bedbugs have accessed a blood source. Excretion follows each blood meal; the frequency of spotting correlates with infestation intensity. Detecting these deposits helps confirm an infestation before live insects are observed, guiding timely control measures.
Key detection points:
- Dark specks on fabric seams or pillowcases
- Stains on walls or baseboards near sleeping areas
- Accumulations in hidden crevices or luggage interiors
Identifying «Fecal Spots» provides reliable evidence of bedbug activity, informs the extent of hiding locations, and supports effective eradication planning.
«Shed Skins (Exuviae)»
Shed skins, known as exuviae, are the remnants left behind when a bedbug molts. Each exuvia retains the insect’s characteristic oval shape, dark brown coloration, and the distinctive flattened dorsal surface. The exoskeleton shows the previous growth stage’s size, often appearing slightly smaller than the live specimen.
Exuviae accumulate in the same locations where adult and nymphal bedbugs seek refuge:
- Mattress seams, box‑spring crevices, and headboard joints
- Upholstered furniture cushions and under‑seat gaps
- Wall baseboards, picture‑frame cracks, and electrical outlet covers
- Luggage compartments and folded clothing in closets
Their presence indicates recent feeding activity because molting typically follows a blood meal. As nymphs ingest blood, hormonal changes trigger ecdysis, allowing the insect to expand and develop into the next instar. The discarded exoskeleton therefore marks a point in the life cycle when the population is actively growing.
Detecting exuviae assists in confirming infestations, especially in low‑visibility scenarios where live bugs hide deep within fabric folds or structural voids. The skins are resistant to decomposition, persisting for weeks after the insects have moved on, which makes them reliable evidence for pest‑management professionals.
«Blood Stains»
Bedbug infestations leave distinctive marks that facilitate detection and assessment. When an adult feeds, its saliva contains anticoagulants that prevent clotting, resulting in small, dark spots on fabric or surfaces. These spots, known as «Blood Stains», appear as reddish‑brown discolorations that may fade to rust‑colored after exposure to air.
Typical locations for such stains include:
- Mattress seams and tags, where insects rest after feeding.
- Bed frame joints and headboard crevices, providing shelter during daylight.
- Upholstered furniture, especially cushions and sofa folds that offer darkness.
- Wall baseboards and floor cracks, offering safe harbor for nymphs and adults.
The presence of «Blood Stains» indicates recent feeding activity and correlates with the population’s growth cycle. As bedbugs reproduce, increased blood intake accelerates development, leading to more frequent staining. Monitoring these marks enables early intervention before populations reach levels that cause extensive damage.
«Distinctive Odor»
Bedbugs release a characteristic scent that serves as a reliable indicator of infestation. The scent is often described as sweet, musty, and faintly reminiscent of coriander or mold. Chemical analysis identifies a blend of aldehydes, ketones, and fatty acids as the primary contributors to this olfactory signature.
Key features of the scent include:
- Presence of (E)-2-hexenal, imparting a green, cucumber‑like note.
- Production of (E)-2-octenal, adding a sharp, metallic facet.
- Minor amounts of isobutyric acid, creating a slightly sour undertone.
The odor originates from defensive secretions released when the insect is disturbed, as well as from metabolic waste deposited in hiding sites. These secretions contain the identified aldehydes, which volatilize at room temperature and disperse through cracks, seams, and fabric fibers.
Detection strategies rely on the scent’s properties. Trained canines are employed to locate the volatile compounds, while specialized electronic sensors mimic canine sensitivity by targeting the same aldehyde profile. Early identification through scent reduces the time required for eradication measures.
Understanding the composition and source of the scent enhances monitoring protocols, allowing professionals to differentiate bedbug activity from other household odors and to implement targeted control actions.
Where Bedbugs Hide
«Common Hiding Places in the Bedroom»
«Mattresses and Box Springs»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects measuring 4–5 mm when unfed and expanding to about 7 mm after feeding. Their reddish‑brown coloration, flattened body, and lack of wings enable them to move easily through fabric seams and tight crevices.
«Mattresses and Box Springs» provide several micro‑habitats that meet the species’ requirements for shelter, proximity to a blood source, and darkness. The primary locations within these components include:
- seams and stitching lines of the mattress cover
- folds and tags of the box‑spring fabric
- joints between the mattress and the box spring frame
- voids behind the headboard or footboard where the mattress rests
These areas remain undisturbed for extended periods, allowing bedbugs to hide during daylight and emerge at night to feed.
Infestations often originate from travel or second‑hand furniture. When an infested item is placed on a bed, eggs and nymphs can disperse onto the mattress and box spring, establishing a population that quickly spreads to adjacent furniture and wall voids. Regular inspection of the mentioned zones and prompt removal of contaminated bedding are essential to prevent the development of a full‑scale infestation.
«Bed Frames and Headboards»
Bed frames and headboards provide structural support for sleeping surfaces, yet their design creates numerous micro‑habitats suitable for Cimex species. The insects’ flat, oval bodies allow them to slip into narrow gaps, seams, and joints that are often overlooked during routine cleaning.
Typical concealment sites within frames and headboards include:
- Screw holes and dowel cavities where wood fibers separate.
- Veneer cracks and paint chips exposing bare substrate.
- Upholstered or padded headboard cushions that retain moisture.
- Metal brackets and brackets’ underside surfaces, especially if dust accumulates.
Visible indicators of infestation linked to these furniture pieces are small, rust‑colored fecal spots on fabric or wood, translucent exoskeletons after molting, and a faint, sweet odor emitted by large colonies. Early detection relies on systematic inspection of all joints, seams, and fabric layers.
Infestations often arise when used furniture is transferred between locations without thorough decontamination. Bed bugs exploit the protected environment of frames and headboards to avoid light and temperature fluctuations, facilitating their proliferation until a host is encountered. Preventive measures involve sealing cracks with wood filler, removing or laundering upholstered components, and applying insect‑growth regulators to vulnerable areas.
«Nightstands and Furniture»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects measuring 4–5 mm in length, reddish‑brown, and lacking wings. Their bodies are flat when unfed, allowing them to squeeze into narrow crevices.
Common concealment sites in nightstands and other furniture include:
- seams and joints of drawers
- undersides of tabletops and headboards
- hollow legs and decorative carvings
- fabric upholstery and cushions
- cracks behind wall‑mounted nightstands
Infestations arise when these pieces provide consistent access to human blood meals and a stable microenvironment. Warmth generated by nearby sleepers, low light, and limited disturbance create optimal conditions. Transport of used or second‑hand furniture introduces bedbugs to new locations, while clutter offers additional hiding spots that hinder detection and treatment.
«Cracks and Crevices in Walls»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects measuring 4–5 mm when fully grown. Their bodies are flat, reddish‑brown, and lack wings. Antennae are short, and legs are positioned near the front, allowing rapid movement across surfaces.
Cracks and crevices in walls provide ideal concealment. These narrow openings protect bedbugs from light and disturbance, enable easy access to adjacent rooms, and create a continuous network for movement. Typical hiding sites within wall structures include:
- Gaps around electrical outlets and switch plates
- Seams between plaster and drywall
- Joint compound cracks near baseboards
- Small fissures around pipe penetrations
The presence of such imperfections often results from age‑related wear, improper installation, or water damage. When these openings exist, bedbugs can migrate from one area to another without needing to travel across exposed surfaces. Consequently, infestations may spread rapidly through the building’s interior.
Infestations frequently originate from infested furniture, luggage, or clothing introduced into the environment. Once bedbugs locate a suitable refuge, such as a wall crack, they establish a breeding colony. The sheltered microclimate within these fissures maintains humidity and temperature favorable for development, supporting population growth and increasing the likelihood of detection in adjacent living spaces.
«Less Obvious Hiding Spots»
«Electrical Outlets and Light Switches»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects about 4–5 mm long, reddish‑brown, and flattened after feeding. Their bodies lack wings and antennae are short, making them easily recognizable under magnification.
Typical refuges include seams of mattresses, cracks in furniture, and the interior of wall cavities. Electrical outlets and light switches constitute a notable subset of these refuges:
- the space behind the outlet cover, protected from disturbance;
- the junction box surrounding a switch, offering a tight, dark cavity;
- the interior of wall plates where dust and fabric fibers accumulate.
These components provide a stable micro‑environment: limited airflow, low light, and proximity to host activity. Bedbugs exploit such locations because they are seldom inspected and allow easy access to nearby sleeping areas.
Infestations arise primarily from the transport of infested items, such as luggage, second‑hand furniture, or clothing. High population density, cluttered spaces, and inadequate sanitation increase the likelihood of introduction. Once established, bedbugs migrate toward concealed structures, including the aforementioned electrical fixtures, to avoid detection while remaining close to a blood source.
«Behind Wallpaper and Wall Decor»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects measuring 5–7 mm in length. Their bodies are flat when unfed and become swollen after a blood meal, taking on a reddish‑brown coloration. Six legs end in tiny claws that enable rapid movement across smooth surfaces.
Infestations arise when adult insects or eggs are transported on luggage, second‑hand furniture, or clothing. Warm indoor environments provide the blood meals required for reproduction, allowing populations to expand rapidly once introduced.
Behind wallpaper and wall décor, bedbugs exploit concealed micro‑habitats that protect them from disturbance. Typical hiding spots include:
- seams and joints where wallpaper meets the wall;
- edges of picture frames, mirrors, or wall‑mounted shelves;
- gaps behind decorative panels, mouldings, or cornices;
- spaces behind adhesive strips or glue lines used in wallpaper installation;
- cavities within wall cavities accessed through loose panels or damaged plaster.
These locations offer darkness, limited exposure to cleaning, and proximity to host activity, making them ideal refuges during daylight hours and sources of re‑infestation after treatment.
«In Clothing and Luggage»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects about 4–5 mm long, reddish‑brown, and flattened laterally. Their bodies lack wings, and their antennae are short. The abdomen displays a visible after‑after‑molt pattern of tiny white spots, which become less distinct after feeding.
In clothing and luggage, bedbugs exploit seams, pockets, folds, and stitching. Typical concealment sites include:
- seams of jackets, trousers, and shirts
- inner pockets and lining of bags
- zipper tracks and Velcro strips
- creases of suitcases and travel trunks
These locations provide darkness, limited disturbance, and proximity to a blood source when the garment or bag is in contact with a host.
Infestations appear in apparel and travel gear primarily because humans transport them inadvertently. Bedbugs attach to fabrics during sleep or prolonged contact, then survive the journey in luggage. The insects are attracted to the carbon‑dioxide and heat emitted by a resting host, and they seek out insulated, undisturbed fabric where they can feed and reproduce. Frequent travel, infrequent laundering of garments, and storage of items in cluttered environments increase the likelihood of introduction and establishment.
«Upholstered Furniture Beyond the Bedroom»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects about 4–5 mm long, reddish‑brown, and flat when unfed. Their bodies lack wings, and each segment bears tiny bristles that help them cling to fabric. Eyes are absent; movement relies on antennae and rapid crawling.
Upholstered items outside the sleeping area provide numerous concealment points. Typical locations include:
- seams and stitching of sofas, armchairs, and recliners
- under cushions, especially when removed for cleaning
- inside the stuffing of ottomans and footstools
- behind the wooden frames of lounge chairs and sectional units
These micro‑habitats protect insects from light and disturbance, allowing them to remain undetected for weeks.
Infestations arise when bedbugs migrate from primary sleeping sites in search of food or when they are introduced via used furniture, luggage, or clothing. Upholstered pieces that are rarely inspected or cleaned create ideal conditions for population growth. Regular vacuuming, prompt removal of debris, and thorough inspection of seams reduce the likelihood of establishment in «Upholstered Furniture Beyond the Bedroom».
Why Bedbugs Appear
«Factors Contributing to Infestation»
«Travel and Transportation»
Bedbugs, scientifically identified as «Cimex lectularius», are small, reddish‑brown insects measuring 4–5 mm in length. Their flattened bodies enable movement through narrow seams and crevices.
Common concealment sites in travel environments include:
- seams of upholstered seats on airplanes, trains, and buses;
- luggage compartments, especially fabric‑lined suitcases;
- headrests, armrests, and under cushions in hotel rooms and hostels;
- floorboards and wall cracks near passenger cabins.
Infestations arise primarily from the transfer of insects via personal belongings and clothing. High‑traffic transportation hubs, such as airports and railway stations, facilitate rapid distribution because travelers often relocate luggage without inspection. Repeated exposure to infested environments increases the probability of introduction into new locations, leading to secondary spread in accommodation facilities.
Preventive measures for travelers and transport operators involve regular inspection of seating fabrics, routine laundering of travel gear at temperatures above 60 °C, and the use of protective encasements for luggage. Early detection through visual checks of the described hiding zones reduces the likelihood of establishment and subsequent complaints.
«Used Furniture and Clothing»
Bedbugs are small, oval, reddish‑brown insects about 4–5 mm long. Their flat bodies enable them to slip beneath seams, folds, and crevices. Adult specimens display visible wing pads and six legs, while nymphs appear lighter and lack fully developed wing pads.
Used furniture and clothing frequently serve as carriers for these pests. Items that have changed hands often retain microscopic traces of eggs, shed skins, or live insects. Transporting such objects introduces the insects into new environments without direct human contact.
Typical hiding spots within second‑hand goods include:
- seams of upholstered chairs and sofas;
- mattress tags and pillowcases;
- folds of coats, jackets, and trousers;
- cushions and padding inside sofas;
- gaps in wooden frames and drawer slides.
Infestations arise when previously uninfested locations receive contaminated objects. The insects exploit the warmth and blood supply of nearby hosts, establishing colonies in the newly introduced microhabitats. Regular inspection of second‑hand purchases and immediate laundering or heat treatment can interrupt this cycle.
«Multi-Unit Dwellings»
Bedbugs are small, oval‑shaped insects measuring 4–5 mm in length, with a flat, reddish‑brown body that becomes engorged and brighter after feeding. Their antennae are short, and they possess six legs adapted for crawling on flat surfaces.
Common concealment sites in multi‑unit buildings include:
- seams and cracks in mattresses, box springs, and bed frames
- headboards, nightstands, and upholstered furniture
- baseboards, wall voids, and electrical outlet covers
- behind wallpaper, picture frames, and wall hangings
- shared laundry facilities, especially in dryer vents and folding tables
Factors that promote infestations in such housing complexes are:
- High resident turnover, which increases the probability of transporting insects between units.
- Shared walls and plumbing conduits that provide continuous pathways for movement.
- Limited access to professional pest‑control resources, leading to delayed detection and treatment.
- Cluttered living spaces that create additional harborage opportunities.
Effective control requires coordinated action among property managers, maintenance staff, and occupants. Strategies include routine inspections of vulnerable areas, sealed cracks and crevices, regular laundering of bedding at high temperatures, and prompt professional treatment when evidence is found. Coordinated efforts reduce the risk of spread across adjacent units and limit long‑term population growth.
«Lack of Awareness»
Bedbug identification suffers from widespread misunderstanding; many people mistake the insects for larger, more colorful pests, overlooking their flat, oval, reddish‑brown bodies that swell after feeding. This misperception delays detection because visual cues are dismissed as harmless or unrelated to infestation.
Typical concealment sites remain hidden from casual observation. Cracks in wall plaster, seams of mattress fabrics, and the tight folds of upholstery provide secure refuges. Bedbugs also occupy electrical outlets and behind picture frames, exploiting narrow spaces that escape routine cleaning.
The primary driver of unnoticed infestations is insufficient knowledge of how these insects spread. Travel, second‑hand furniture, and shared laundry facilities introduce bedbugs without obvious signs. Lack of public education on preventive measures—such as inspecting luggage and isolating used items—allows populations to establish before symptoms become evident.
«Misconceptions About Bedbug Appearance»
«Cleanliness is Not a Factor»
Bedbugs are small, oval insects measuring 4–5 mm in length, reddish‑brown in color, and flattened laterally. Their bodies lack wings, and they possess a distinctive pointed beak used for feeding on blood. After a blood meal, the abdomen expands, becoming visibly swollen.
Typical refuges include:
- Mattress seams, box‑spring cavities, and bed frames
- Upholstered furniture crevices and sofa cushions
- Wall cracks, baseboard gaps, and electrical outlet covers
- Luggage compartments and personal belongings during travel
Infestations arise primarily from passive transport: hitchhiking on clothing, luggage, or second‑hand furniture. Environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity influence reproductive rates, but the presence of bedbugs does not correlate with the level of household cleanliness. Studies demonstrate that well‑maintained homes can host thriving populations, while poorly maintained spaces may remain free of infestation. The misconception that tidiness prevents bedbugs leads to delayed detection and ineffective control measures.
Consequently, the principle «Cleanliness is Not a Factor» must guide prevention strategies. Regular inspection of sleeping areas, prompt isolation of suspect items, and professional pest management remain essential, irrespective of overall hygiene standards.
«Attraction to Carbon Dioxide and Body Heat»
Bedbugs locate potential hosts by sensing two primary cues: the rise in carbon dioxide concentration and the thermal gradient emitted by warm‑blooded organisms. Specialized sensilla on the insect’s antennae detect carbon dioxide levels as low as 0.04 %, prompting activation of locomotor circuits and orientation toward the source. Simultaneously, infrared receptors perceive temperature differences of 0.1 °C, guiding the bug toward the heat plume that surrounds a sleeping person.
These sensory mechanisms operate synergistically. When carbon dioxide levels increase, the insect’s nervous system heightens sensitivity to heat, allowing rapid convergence on the host. The combined effect explains why infestations often emerge after prolonged human occupancy, as sustained emissions create a stable attractant field.
Key aspects of the attraction process:
- Carbon dioxide detection initiates host‑seeking behavior.
- Thermal perception refines the approach trajectory.
- Integrated response accelerates feeding opportunities, leading to population growth in concealed harborages such as mattress seams, bed frames, and wall crevices.