What treatments destroy bedbug eggs?

Understanding Bed Bug Eggs

The Life Cycle of Bed Bugs

Egg Stage Characteristics

Bedbug eggs, often called “cimex,” are oval, milky‑white structures measuring 0.5–0.7 mm in length. Each female deposits 1–5 eggs per day, clustering in groups of 5–10 within crevices, seams, and fabric folds. The chorion, a protective outer shell, is composed of a proteinaceous matrix that resists desiccation and offers limited permeability to chemicals. Development proceeds through three instar stages within the egg, completing embryogenesis in 6–10 days under optimal temperatures (25–30 °C) and humidity (≥70 % RH). Below 20 °C, development slows markedly, extending hatch time to two weeks or more.

Key attributes influencing treatment efficacy:

Shell thickness: Approximately 10 µm; thicker shells impede penetration of low‑molecular‑weight agents.
Permeability: Limited diffusion of aqueous solutions; oil‑based or solvent‑based products achieve deeper ingress.
Temperature sensitivity: Eggs fail to hatch above 45 °C for 10 minutes or below –10 °C for 30 minutes; thermal extremes reliably neutralize the stage.
Chemical resistance: Resistant to many insecticides that target nervous system receptors; only compounds with ovicidal action (e.g., silica‑based desiccants, certain pyrethroids formulated for egg penetration) are effective.
Physical location: Often hidden in protected microhabitats; mechanical removal or vacuuming may be required to expose eggs to treatment.

Understanding these characteristics guides the selection of methods that effectively eradicate the egg stage, ensuring comprehensive control of bedbug infestations.

Hatching Timeframe

Bedbug eggs develop within a narrow window that determines the effectiveness of any eradication method. Under optimal conditions—temperatures between 24 °C (75 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F)—embryogenesis completes in 5 to 7 days. Cooler environments (15 °C to 20 °C, 59 °F‑68 °F) extend development to 8–12 days, while temperatures above 30 °C accelerate hatching to 4 days or less. Humidity influences survival but has a lesser effect on the duration of embryonic growth.

Effective egg‑targeting strategies must intersect this timeframe. Treatments that rely on chemical penetration, such as silica‑based powders or residual insecticides, require contact before the chorion hardens, typically within the first three days after oviposition. Heat‑based interventions must maintain the target temperature for at least 90 minutes to ensure lethal exposure for all eggs, regardless of developmental stage. Cryogenic approaches demand temperatures below –18 °C (0 °F) for a minimum of 24 hours to halt embryogenesis and cause mortality.

Key considerations for timing:

Monitor ambient temperature; adjust treatment duration accordingly.
Apply contact agents promptly after detection to intercept early‑stage eggs.
Verify that heat or cold treatments sustain the required temperature range for the full exposure period.
Re‑inspect after the longest possible hatching interval (up to 12 days) to confirm the absence of emerging nymphs.

Understanding the precise hatching schedule enables practitioners to schedule interventions that fully eradicate the egg population, preventing resurgence of the infestation.

Conventional Treatments and Their Efficacy Against Eggs

Chemical Insecticides

Pyrethroids and Pyrethrins

Pyrethroids and pyrethrins are synthetic and natural insecticides commonly employed to eradicate bedbug populations, including their eggs. Both classes target the nervous system, causing rapid paralysis and death. Pyrethroids, such as deltamethrin and permethrin, bind to voltage‑gated sodium channels, prolonging their open state and leading to uncontrolled nerve firing. Pyrethrins, extracted from Chrysanthemum flowers, act similarly but degrade more quickly in the environment.

Efficacy against bedbug eggs varies with formulation and exposure duration. Key observations include:

Direct contact with freshly laid eggs results in high mortality for most pyrethroid products.
Older, more resilient eggshells reduce penetration, lowering effectiveness.
Residual deposits on surfaces maintain activity for weeks, increasing the likelihood of egg exposure.
Resistance mechanisms, notably knock‑down resistance (kdr) mutations, diminish susceptibility in some populations.

Application strategies that maximize egg destruction involve:

Thoroughly treating cracks, crevices, and hideouts where females deposit eggs.
Using aerosolized or dust formulations to reach concealed oviposition sites.
Combining pyrethroid treatments with heat or desiccant methods to overcome resistant eggs.

Safety considerations require adherence to label instructions, personal protective equipment, and ventilation to limit human exposure. Pyrethroids present low toxicity to mammals at recommended doses, while pyrethrins demand caution due to potential allergic reactions. Proper integration of these insecticides into a comprehensive pest‑management plan can substantially reduce bedbug egg viability.

Neonicotinoids

Neonicotinoids are systemic insecticides that bind to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the nervous system of insects, causing paralysis and death. Their high affinity for these receptors enables penetration of the protective chorion surrounding bedbug eggs, leading to embryonic mortality.

Efficacy against bedbug eggs relies on several factors:

Active ingredient concentration – formulations containing imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, or dinotefuran at label‑recommended rates achieve >90 % egg mortality within 24 hours.
Application method – thorough spray coverage of cracks, crevices, and bedding ensures contact with the egg surface; foggers and aerosol devices can improve distribution in densely cluttered environments.
Exposure time – prolonged residual activity, typically 2–4 weeks, maintains lethal levels on treated surfaces, reducing the likelihood of egg survival after initial treatment.
Resistance status – populations with documented neonicotinoid resistance exhibit reduced egg mortality; rotating with non‑neonicotinoid chemistries mitigates this risk.

Limitations include:

Reduced efficacy on heavily insulated eggs – thickened chorionic layers in later developmental stages can impede absorption, requiring higher doses or supplemental treatments.
Human and pet safety considerations – while generally low in toxicity to mammals, accidental ingestion or skin contact mandates adherence to personal protective equipment and ventilation guidelines.
Environmental impact – neonicotinoids persist in soil and can affect non‑target arthropods; integrated pest management protocols recommend minimal effective use.

In practice, neonicotinoid applications form a component of a multi‑modal strategy, combining chemical, physical, and mechanical interventions to achieve comprehensive eradication of bedbug eggs.

Desiccants «Diatomaceous Earth, Silica Gel»

Desiccants such as diatomaceous earth and silica gel act by absorbing the protective wax layer on the surface of bedbug eggs, causing rapid dehydration and mortality. The fine particles penetrate the chorion, disrupting the moisture balance required for embryonic development.

Diatomaceous earth: composed of fossilized algae with abrasive edges; contact with eggs leads to mechanical damage and loss of water. Effective when applied in a thin, even layer covering cracks, seams, and mattress edges. Re‑application is needed after cleaning or moisture exposure.
Silica gel: consists of porous silicon dioxide beads that attract and hold water molecules. Direct contact with egg clusters results in desiccation within 24–48 hours. Best used in sachets or dusted form in hidden crevices; does not settle as readily as dust, reducing the risk of re‑distribution.

Both agents remain inert to humans and pets when used according to label directions, but inhalation of airborne dust should be avoided. Their efficacy diminishes in high‑humidity environments; maintaining relative humidity below 50 % enhances performance. For comprehensive control, combine desiccant treatment with heat, steam, or insecticide applications to address all life stages.

Insect Growth Regulators «IGRs»

Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs) are synthetic analogues of juvenile hormones that interfere with the development of arthropods. By mimicking or blocking hormonal signals, IGRs prevent immature insects from reaching adulthood and can inhibit egg hatching, making them a valuable tool for eliminating bed‑bug populations at the earliest stage.

Key IGRs demonstrated to suppress bed‑bug egg viability include:

Hydroprene – disrupts molting processes, causing embryonic arrest and non‑viable eggs.
Methoprene – imitates juvenile hormone, leading to incomplete embryogenesis and failure to hatch.
Pyriproxyfen – blocks metamorphosis, resulting in embryos that cannot develop beyond early stages.
Diflubenzuron – interferes with chitin synthesis, weakening egg membranes and reducing hatch rates.

Effective deployment of IGRs requires thorough coverage of infested areas, preferably through aerosol sprays, foggers, or residual dusts applied to cracks, crevices, and bedding. IGRs alone may not eradicate adult insects; they are most potent when combined with fast‑acting neurotoxic insecticides that kill mature bugs while the IGRs suppress subsequent generations. Repeated applications are necessary because IGRs act on newly laid eggs, which emerge continuously during an infestation. Monitoring for resistance development and adhering to label‑specified concentrations ensure sustained efficacy.

Heat Treatments

High-Temperature Steam

High‑temperature steam is a proven method for eradicating bed‑bug eggs. The heat generated by a professional‑grade steamer penetrates fabric, wood, and crevices, raising the temperature of the target surface to lethal levels for all life stages.

Research indicates that exposure to saturated steam at 120 °F (49 °C) for a minimum of 30 seconds kills eggs reliably. Temperatures above 130 °F (54 °C) reduce the required exposure time to 10–15 seconds. Consistent contact with the steam jet is essential; brief or intermittent bursts allow some eggs to survive.

Effective application requires:

A steamer capable of producing continuous steam at ≥ 120 °F (49 °C).
A nozzle that directs steam into seams, folds, and mattress tufts.
Slow, overlapping passes to maintain the target temperature for the full exposure period.
Protective gear for the operator, including heat‑resistant gloves and eye protection.

Limitations include reduced efficacy on insulated materials that impede heat transfer and on items that cannot withstand moisture. Complementary treatments—such as vacuuming or chemical applications—may be necessary for complete control in heavily infested environments.

Professional Heat Chambers

Professional heat chambers eradicate bed‑bug eggs by exposing infested items to uniformly controlled temperatures that exceed the thermal tolerance of all life stages. The chamber raises the ambient temperature to ≥ 50 °C (122 °F) and maintains this level for a minimum of 30 minutes, a duration proven to penetrate deep crevices and kill embryos within their protective shells. Precise thermocouples monitor core temperatures, ensuring no cold spots remain.

Key operational parameters:

Target temperature: 50–60 °C (122–140 °F) throughout the load.
Exposure time: at least 30 minutes at target temperature, often extended to 45 minutes for dense materials.
Airflow: forced circulation eliminates temperature gradients and accelerates heat transfer.
Calibration: regular sensor verification guarantees compliance with efficacy standards.

Advantages of heat chambers include:

Chemical‑free process, eliminating residue concerns.
Ability to treat a wide range of fabrics, furniture, and equipment in a single cycle.
Immediate verification; post‑treatment inspection confirms complete egg mortality.

Limitations to consider:

High energy consumption; operational costs rise with larger loads.
Materials sensitive to heat (e.g., certain electronics, delicate textiles) may require exclusion or alternative methods.
Requires professional handling to prevent fire hazards and ensure uniform heating.

When integrated into an integrated pest‑management program, professional heat chambers provide a reliable, non‑toxic solution for destroying bed‑bug eggs and preventing re‑infestation.

Laundry and Drying Methods

Washing garments and linens at temperatures of at least 60 °C (140 °F) for a full cycle kills both adult bedbugs and their eggs. Heat exposure for the required duration denatures proteins and ruptures the protective chorion of the eggs, ensuring complete mortality. When fabrics cannot tolerate high temperatures, adding a prolonged soak in hot water (≥55 °C) followed by a vigorous agitation phase improves egg eradication.

Drying in a tumble dryer set to high heat (≥70 °C/158 °F) for a minimum of 30 minutes eliminates residual eggs that survived laundering. The combination of sustained temperature and tumbling action breaks the adhesive bonds that secure eggs to fibers, allowing the heat to penetrate all layers of the material.

Key parameters for effective laundry and drying treatment:

Water temperature: ≥60 °C for washing; ≥55 °C for pre‑soak if high heat is unsuitable.
Cycle length: full wash cycle; at least 30 minutes of continuous high‑heat drying.
Dryer setting: high heat (≥70 °C) with active tumbling.
Fabric considerations: separate heat‑sensitive items; use steam‑press or iron at ≥150 °C for additional egg destruction.

Implementing these protocols consistently removes bedbug eggs from household textiles, preventing re‑infestation and supporting broader pest‑control measures.

Cold Treatments

Freezing Methods

Freezing is a proven method for killing bed‑bug eggs when temperatures are sustained below the lethal threshold. Laboratory studies indicate that exposure to –20 °C (–4 °F) for at least 48 hours eliminates all developmental stages, including the most resistant eggs. The required time increases as the temperature rises; at –10 °C (14 °F) a minimum of 7 days is necessary to achieve comparable mortality.

Key parameters for effective freezing:

Temperature: Must remain at or below –15 °C (5 °F) throughout the treatment period. Fluctuations above this level allow some eggs to survive.
Duration: Minimum exposure times are 48 hours at –20 °C, 72 hours at –15 °C, and 7 days at –10 °C. Longer periods provide a safety margin.
Item preparation: Items should be sealed in airtight bags to prevent condensation, which can raise internal temperatures during thawing.
Equipment: Commercial‑grade freezers or deep‑freeze chambers with temperature logging capabilities ensure consistent conditions. Household freezers may reach required temperatures but often lack reliable temperature control.

Advantages of freezing include non‑chemical application, suitability for delicate fabrics, and the ability to treat infested belongings without disassembly. Limitations involve the need for prolonged storage space, potential damage to temperature‑sensitive materials, and the requirement that the freezer’s thermostat accurately maintain the target temperature.

Practical implementation steps:

Place infested objects in sealed, moisture‑proof bags.
Load bags into a freezer that can maintain the target temperature.
Set a timer for the appropriate exposure period based on the achieved temperature.
Verify temperature stability with a calibrated probe.
After the cycle, allow items to thaw gradually at room temperature before removal to avoid condensation damage.

When applied correctly, freezing provides a reliable, chemical‑free solution for eradicating bed‑bug eggs in a controlled environment.

Limitations of Cold Treatments

Cold‑based methods can kill bedbug eggs, but several constraints reduce their practicality.

Temperature requirement – Lethal exposure generally demands temperatures at or below ‑16 °C (1 °F) for a minimum of 5 days. Most household freezers maintain only ‑18 °C (0 °F) and cannot sustain the extended period without defrost cycles that raise internal temperature.
Thermal inertia of substrates – Eggs hidden in thick fabrics, mattress seams, or wood absorb heat slowly. Surface temperature may reach the target, while interior layers remain above the lethal threshold, allowing eggs to survive.
Item size and volume – Large objects (e.g., sofas, pallets) cannot be placed entirely within a freezer. Even portable cryogenic chambers have limited capacity, forcing partial treatment and leaving untreated egg clusters.
Extended exposure time – Maintaining sub‑freezing conditions for several days requires continuous power and monitoring. Interruptions caused by power outages or door openings compromise efficacy.
Potential material damage – Prolonged freezing can cause brittleness in plastics, cracking of wood, and loss of elasticity in fabrics, leading to costly replacement of treated items.
Verification difficulty – Detecting surviving eggs after treatment is labor‑intensive; visual inspection is unreliable, and laboratory testing is rarely feasible for homeowners.

These factors collectively limit the reliability of cold treatments as a standalone solution for eliminating bedbug eggs.

Non-Conventional and Emerging Approaches

Fumigation

Effectiveness on Eggs

Bed‑bug egg eradication requires approaches that penetrate the protective chorion and disrupt embryonic development. Heat above 45 °C for at least 10 minutes reliably kills all stages, including eggs, because protein denaturation occurs rapidly at this temperature. Cold treatments must reach –17 °C for a minimum of 72 hours; lower temperatures shorten exposure time but still demand prolonged contact to ensure mortality.

Steam (≥100 °C, 10 s exposure): Immediate egg mortality; penetration limited to surface layers, so thorough coverage essential.
Professional‑grade heat chambers (45–50 °C, 30 min): Consistently 100 % egg kill; uniform temperature distribution critical.
Cryogenic freezing (–17 °C, 72 h): Achieves complete egg destruction; logistical challenges limit field use.
Silica‑based desiccants (diatomaceous earth, silica gel): Cause dehydration; effectiveness ranges from 70 % to 90 % after 48 h, dependent on humidity and particle size.
Residual insecticide sprays (pyrethroids, neonicotinoids): Penetrate chorion poorly; egg mortality typically below 30 % unless combined with ovicidal additives.
Fumigants (sulfuryl fluoride, hydrogen cyanide): Penetrate protective layers; laboratory studies show >95 % egg kill within 24 h at recommended concentrations.

Selecting a method hinges on achievable temperature exposure, equipment availability, and safety constraints. Heat‑based protocols deliver the highest reliability, while chemical fumigants provide an alternative when heat application is impractical. Desiccants supplement primary treatments but should not be relied upon as sole control measures.

Safety Considerations

Treatments that target bed‑bug eggs often involve chemicals, extreme temperatures, or desiccant powders. Safety considerations focus on protecting occupants, applicators, and the environment while ensuring efficacy.

Chemical options such as residual insecticides and insect growth regulators require personal protective equipment (PPE) including gloves, goggles, and respirators. Apply in well‑ventilated areas; leave rooms vacant for the manufacturer‑specified re‑entry interval. Store products in locked containers away from children and pets. Follow label directions for dilution, coverage, and disposal of empty containers.

Heat‑based methods demand precise temperature control. Maintain ambient temperatures above 120 °F (49 °C) for at least 90 minutes to guarantee egg mortality. Use calibrated thermometers, monitor hot spots, and protect heat‑sensitive items. Avoid contact with flammable materials and ensure fire‑suppression equipment is accessible.

Desiccant powders (e.g., diatomaceous earth, silica gel) present inhalation hazards. Apply with low‑dust applicators, keep the area sealed during treatment, and wear particulate‑filter masks. Remove residual dust before re‑occupancy to prevent respiratory irritation.

Key safety actions:

Wear appropriate PPE for each treatment type.
Ensure adequate ventilation and observe re‑entry times.
Isolate treated zones from children, pets, and vulnerable individuals.
Verify temperature thresholds and exposure durations for heat applications.
Use dust‑control measures and respiratory protection with desiccants.
Follow label instructions for storage, handling, and waste disposal.

Adhering to these protocols minimizes health risks, prevents accidental contamination, and supports successful eradication of bed‑bug eggs.

Professional Pest Control Services

Integrated Pest Management «IPM» Strategies

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) addresses bed‑bug infestations by combining multiple tactics that specifically target the resistant egg stage. The approach reduces reliance on single‑method treatments, limits chemical exposure, and improves long‑term control.

Heat treatment: Raising ambient temperature to 45–50 °C for at least 90 minutes kills eggs embedded in fabrics, wall voids, and furniture. Portable heaters and steam devices achieve uniform heat distribution, ensuring complete egg mortality.
Cold exposure: Sustained freezing at –18 °C for 48 hours eliminates eggs in infested items that cannot be heated. Cryogenic sprays provide rapid surface freezing for small objects.
Desiccant dusts: Silica‑based powders adhere to egg shells, absorbing moisture and causing desiccation. Proper application in cracks, seams, and mattress tags ensures contact with hidden eggs.
Insect growth regulators (IGRs): Compounds such as hydroprene disrupt embryonic development, preventing eggs from hatching. IGRs are most effective when applied to areas where adult females lay eggs, such as bed frames and baseboards.
Vacuuming and steam: High‑efficiency vacuum cleaners remove eggs from surfaces; immediate disposal of the bag or filter prevents re‑infestation. Steam generators deliver temperatures above 100 °C, instantly destroying eggs on contact.
Physical barriers: Mattress encasements rated for bed‑bug protection trap existing eggs and prevent new oviposition. Sealing cracks and crevices with caulk removes concealed egg sites.
Monitoring and sanitation: Sticky interceptors and pitfall traps detect adult activity, allowing timely deployment of egg‑targeting treatments. Regular laundering of bedding at ≥60 °C and decluttering reduce egg harborage.

Effective IPM implementation requires coordinated scheduling of these tactics, verification of egg elimination through post‑treatment inspections, and documentation of actions to maintain a traceable control program.

Post-Treatment Monitoring

Effective eradication of bedbug eggs requires systematic observation after any chemical or non‑chemical intervention. Monitoring confirms whether the applied method has reached the embryonic stage and identifies residual hotspots that may cause reinfestation.

Inspection protocols combine visual surveys with passive detection devices. Visual surveys involve examining seams, folds, and crevices using a magnifying lens or a portable microscope. Passive devices—such as interceptors placed beneath furniture legs and sticky traps positioned near suspected harborage—collect emerging nymphs, providing indirect evidence of surviving eggs.

Conduct an initial inspection 48–72 hours after treatment to locate any newly hatched nymphs.
Deploy interceptors and sticky traps in all rooms; replace or refresh them weekly for at least four weeks.
Record trap counts and visual findings in a standardized log, noting location, date, and life‑stage observed.
Perform a secondary visual examination at two‑week intervals to verify the absence of viable eggs.
If trap data or visual checks reveal continued activity, apply a supplemental treatment targeting the identified zones.

Interpretation of data follows a simple rule: zero detections across three consecutive weekly checks indicates successful egg elimination. Persistent captures or sightings after the third check warrant a targeted retreat, preferably with a product proven to penetrate egg chorions, such as silica‑based dusts or heat treatments exceeding 45 °C for a minimum of 90 minutes.

Continuous post‑treatment monitoring, executed with disciplined timing and objective recording, provides the evidence base needed to confirm complete egg destruction and to prevent resurgence.

Factors Influencing Treatment Success

Thoroughness of Application

Effective eradication of bed‑bug eggs depends on the thoroughness of application. Incomplete coverage leaves viable eggs that hatch after treatment, rendering any chemical or physical method ineffective. Practitioners must apply agents to every potential harbor, including seams, crevices, under furniture, and inside wall voids. Missed spots create a reservoir for resurgence.

Key aspects of thorough application:

Complete surface contact – ensure the spray or powder reaches the full thickness of fabric, mattress covers, and upholstery. Use a fine mist or dust that penetrates fibers rather than merely coating the exterior.
Adequate dosage – follow label‑specified concentrations; under‑dosing reduces lethality, while over‑dosing can cause residue buildup without added benefit.
Multiple passes – repeat the treatment after the first oviposition cycle (approximately 7–10 days) to target eggs that were not exposed initially.
Verification – employ visual inspection or sticky traps after each round to confirm that no untreated zones remain.
Environmental control – maintain temperature and humidity levels that enhance the agent’s efficacy; many egg‑killing chemicals work best at moderate humidity.

Neglecting any of these steps compromises the overall success of egg‑destruction protocols. Consistent, meticulous execution eliminates the developmental stage of the pest, preventing re‑infestation and reducing the need for subsequent interventions.

Infestation Severity

Infestation severity is measured by the number of bedbugs, the extent of colonized rooms, and the presence of eggs in hidden crevices. Light infestations involve a few adults and scattered eggs; moderate cases show multiple harborage sites with visible egg clusters; heavy infestations contain large populations across several rooms, with eggs embedded in walls, furniture, and bedding.

Severity dictates the intensity of egg‑targeted interventions. Light cases can be managed with localized treatments; moderate infestations require a combination of chemical and physical methods; heavy infestations demand whole‑unit protocols, repeated applications, and thorough monitoring.

Treatments that reliably destroy bedbug eggs include:

High‑temperature heat (above 120 °F/49 °C for a minimum of 90 minutes) applied via professional heaters or portable steam devices.
Steam (steamers delivering 212 °F/100 °C) directed at seams, mattress folds, and wall voids.
Silicone‑based desiccant dusts (e.g., diatomaceous earth, silica gel) that abrade egg shells and cause desiccation.
Insect growth regulators (IGRs) such as hydroprene, which prevent egg development and cause mortality of emerging nymphs.
Cold‑freeze treatments (below 0 °F/‑18 °C for at least 4 hours) using specialized equipment to freeze eggs in situ.

For light infestations, targeted heat or steam on affected items, supplemented by dusts, often suffices. Moderate infestations benefit from whole‑room heating combined with dust application and IGR spray to address residual eggs. Heavy infestations require full‑unit heating, extensive dusting, IGR integration, and post‑treatment inspections to confirm egg elimination before declaring success.

Environmental Conditions

Environmental factors determine the survival of bedbug ova. Temperature, humidity, and exposure duration interact to either preserve or eradicate the eggs.

Heat treatment eliminates eggs when temperatures exceed 45 °C (113 °F) for a minimum of 30 minutes. Sustained exposure to 50 °C (122 °F) for 10 minutes achieves complete mortality. Lower thresholds require longer contact: 40 °C (104 °F) must be maintained for at least 2 hours. Heat applied through professional steam devices or portable heaters follows these parameters.

Cold exposure reduces egg viability at temperatures at or below –10 °C (14 °F). A continuous freeze for 48 hours guarantees hatch failure. Shorter periods (24 hours) are effective at –15 °C (5 °F). Freezing methods include specialized refrigeration units and cryogenic sprays.

Relative humidity influences desiccation. Moisture levels below 30 % RH cause rapid water loss in eggs, leading to death within hours at ambient temperatures. Conversely, humidity above 80 % RH can prolong egg development, especially when combined with moderate temperatures. Managing humidity therefore complements thermal strategies.

Key environmental thresholds:

≥ 45 °C for ≥ 30 min
≥ 50 °C for ≥ 10 min
≤ –10 °C for ≥ 48 h
≤ 30 % RH at 20–25 °C for rapid desiccation

Applying these conditions in a controlled manner provides reliable eradication of bedbug eggs without reliance on chemical insecticides.