What is the term for flea infestation?

Understanding Flea Infestation Terminology

The Primary Term: «Pediculosis» or «Siphonapterosis»?

Debunking Common Misconceptions

Flea infestation, medically referred to as fleaborne dermatitis or simply flea infestation, describes the presence of Xenopsylla or Pulex species on a host and the resulting skin reaction. The term is often confused with unrelated conditions, leading to misinformation.

Common misconceptions and factual corrections:

Misconception: Fleas affect only dogs and cats.
Fact: Fleas readily bite humans, wildlife, and birds; any warm‑blooded animal can serve as a host.
Misconception: A single bite indicates a severe allergy.
Fact: Most reactions are mild papules; severe allergy, known as flea allergy dermatitis, occurs in a minority of individuals with hypersensitivity.
Misconception: Over‑the‑counter shampoos eradicate fleas.
Fact: Topical treatments target adult fleas but do not eliminate eggs or larvae; integrated pest management, including environmental control, is required for complete eradication.
Misconception: Flea bites are easily distinguished from other insect bites.
Fact: Flea bites often appear in clusters of three to five punctures, but visual identification alone is unreliable without clinical assessment.
Misconception: Flea infestation resolves without professional intervention.
Fact: Persistent infestations lead to secondary infections and can spread to multiple hosts; veterinary or medical consultation ensures appropriate insecticide selection and treatment protocol.

Understanding the precise term and dispelling these myths improves diagnosis, treatment, and prevention strategies for both human and animal health.

Accurate Scientific Nomenclature

The precise scientific designation for an invasion of fleas is “infestation by Siphonaptera.” This term references the taxonomic order to which all flea species belong, providing a universally recognized label across veterinary and medical literature.

Key related nomenclature includes:

Siphonapteran infestation – generic reference to any host burdened by members of the order Siphonaptera.
Pulicidae infestation – specific to the family Pulicidae, which contains the most common domestic fleas (e.g., Ctenocephalides felis).
Flea‑borne disease – denotes pathogenic conditions transmitted by fleas, such as plague (Yersinia pestis) or murine typhus (Rickettsia typhi).
Flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) – the hypersensitivity reaction in hosts repeatedly exposed to flea saliva.

Using “infestation by Siphonaptera” aligns discussion with taxonomic standards, eliminates ambiguity, and facilitates accurate communication among professionals in parasitology, veterinary medicine, and public health.

Types of Flea Infestations

Based on Host Animal

Canine Flea Infestation

Canine flea infestation, medically referred to as flea infestation, denotes the presence of Ctenocephalides species on a dog’s skin and coat. The condition results from adult fleas feeding on blood, laying eggs, and establishing a life cycle that can multiply rapidly.

Typical clinical signs include:

Intense pruritus, especially around the neck, tail base, and abdomen.
Visible adult fleas or flea dirt (digested blood) on the fur.
Hair loss and skin excoriations from scratching.
Development of flea allergy dermatitis in sensitized animals.

Diagnosis relies on direct visual inspection, microscopic examination of combed debris, and evaluation of skin lesions. Laboratory confirmation may involve counting flea eggs or larvae collected from the environment.

Effective management comprises three coordinated actions:

Adulticide treatment – topical, oral, or injectable products that kill existing fleas on the host.
Insect growth regulator (IGR) application – agents that interrupt development of eggs, larvae, and pupae in the surroundings.
Environmental control – thorough cleaning, vacuuming, and washing of bedding; periodic treatment of the home and yard with IGR‑based sprays or foggers.

Prevention strategies focus on regular administration of long‑acting flea control products, routine grooming, and maintaining a clean living area to suppress re‑infestation. Continuous prophylaxis is essential because a single surviving flea can repopulate the host within days.

Feline Flea Infestation

Feline flea infestation, commonly referred to as a flea infestation, denotes the presence of Ctenocephalides felis or related flea species on a cat. Adult fleas attach to the host’s skin, feed on blood, and lay eggs that fall into the environment, perpetuating the cycle.

Typical clinical signs include:

Intense scratching or grooming
Visible fleas or flea dirt (dark specks) on the coat
Hair loss, especially along the spine and tail base
Red, inflamed skin or papules
Development of flea allergy dermatitis in sensitized cats

Consequences extend beyond discomfort. Heavy infestations can cause anemia, transmit tapeworms (Dipylidium caninum), and facilitate secondary bacterial infections.

Effective management requires a three‑pronged approach:

Immediate adulticide treatment – topical or oral products that kill existing fleas within 24 hours.
Environmental control – thorough vacuuming, washing of bedding, and application of insect growth regulators to interrupt the life cycle.
Preventive regimen – monthly ectoparasiticide administration to stop re‑infestation.

Regular monitoring of the cat’s coat and the living area is essential to confirm eradication and maintain long‑term protection.

Human Flea Infestation

Human flea infestation occurs when adult fleas, primarily Pulex irritans or Ctenocephalides species, feed on a person’s skin. The clinical manifestation is termed flea bite dermatitis, frequently referred to as flea allergy dermatitis (FAD) when an IgE‑mediated hypersensitivity develops.

Typical signs include:

Small, erythematous papules with a central punctum
Clusters of bites arranged in linear or “breakfast‑n‑lunch” patterns
Intense pruritus developing within hours of exposure
Secondary excoriation and possible bacterial infection

Diagnosis relies on a detailed exposure history, identification of characteristic bite patterns, and, when necessary, microscopic examination of skin scrapings to exclude other ectoparasites. Laboratory testing for flea‑specific IgE confirms allergic involvement.

Management consists of:

Immediate removal of fleas from the environment using insecticidal sprays or foggers approved for indoor use.
Topical corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and antihistamines for itch control.
Systemic antibiotics if secondary bacterial infection is present.
In refractory allergic cases, desensitization therapy or oral corticosteroids may be required.

Prevention focuses on eliminating flea reservoirs in pets and the home, regular grooming of animals, and maintaining clean bedding and carpets. Vacuuming and washing fabrics at high temperatures disrupt the flea life cycle, reducing the risk of re‑infestation.

Based on Severity

Mild Infestation

Mild flea infestation, often described as a low‑level flea problem, involves a limited number of adult fleas and occasional bite marks on hosts. The infestation remains confined to a small area of the animal’s coat or a specific part of the environment, without widespread contamination of bedding, carpets, or outdoor spaces.

Typical indicators include:

Scattered flea bite lesions, usually on the lower abdomen or legs.
Small, mobile insects observed briefly on the host’s fur.
Minimal presence of flea dirt (fecal specks) in localized spots.
No significant hair loss or secondary skin infections.

Control measures for a mild infestation focus on targeted interventions:

Apply a single, veterinarian‑approved topical or oral adulticide to the affected animal.
Wash the animal’s bedding and treat only the immediate sleeping area with an insecticide spray.
Vacuum the surrounding floor and upholstery thoroughly, then dispose of the vacuum bag or clean the canister to remove any eggs or larvae.
Monitor the animal daily for new flea activity for at least two weeks, repeating treatment if necessary.

Prevention of escalation relies on maintaining regular flea prophylaxis, keeping living areas clean, and inspecting pets routinely. Prompt action at the mild stage prevents the development of a full‑scale infestation, protecting both animal health and household hygiene.

Moderate Infestation

A moderate flea infestation refers to a population density that is noticeable but not overwhelming. Adult fleas, larvae, and eggs are present on the host and in the surrounding environment, creating a persistent irritation that requires intervention.

Typical indicators of a moderate level include:

Multiple bites on a single host within a short period
Visible adult fleas moving on the animal’s coat
Presence of flea dirt (dark specks) on bedding or carpet
Small clusters of larvae in hidden areas such as cracks, upholstery, or pet bedding

Control measures for this stage usually combine topical or oral adulticides, environmental sprays targeting eggs and larvae, and regular laundering of fabrics. Prompt treatment prevents escalation to a severe outbreak.

Severe Infestation

Severe flea infestation, often referred to as a flea outbreak, describes a condition in which the flea population on a host or within an environment has multiplied to levels that cause significant discomfort, skin irritation, and potential secondary infections. The term emphasizes both the intensity of the parasite load and the urgency of intervention.

Key characteristics of a flea outbreak include:

Visible clusters of adult fleas moving across the host’s fur or skin.
Excessive scratching, biting, or grooming behavior.
Presence of flea dirt (digested blood) on bedding, carpets, or animal coats.
Development of flea allergy dermatitis, marked by redness, swelling, and hair loss.
Rapid spread to other animals or human occupants in the same environment.

Control measures must address both the host and the surrounding habitat:

Apply a veterinary‑approved adulticide to eliminate existing fleas on the animal.
Use an insect growth regulator (IGR) to prevent egg and larval development.
Wash all bedding, blankets, and fabric items in hot water; vacuum flooring and upholstery thoroughly.
Treat the indoor environment with a residual flea spray or fogger, following label directions.
Repeat treatment cycles according to product guidelines to break the flea life cycle, typically every 7–10 days for three to four weeks.

Prompt identification and comprehensive treatment are essential to reduce the parasite burden and prevent recurrence.

Recognizing the Signs of Infestation

Clinical Manifestations in Animals

Itching and Scratching

The medical label for a flea infestation is typically “flea allergy dermatitis” (FAD) or “fleaborne dermatitis.” This condition arises when an organism’s immune system reacts to flea saliva proteins introduced during a bite.

Itching and scratching represent the primary clinical expression of FAD. The pruritic response is triggered by histamine release and other inflammatory mediators at the bite site. Continuous scratching aggravates skin damage, promotes secondary bacterial infection, and extends the inflammatory cycle.

Common manifestations include:

Intense localized itching, often worsening at night
Erythematous papules or wheals surrounding bite marks
Linear or clustered scratches forming crusted lesions
Hyperpigmentation or alopecia in chronic cases

Effective management requires breaking the itch‑scratch loop through antiparasitic treatment, anti‑inflammatory medication, and environmental flea control.

Hair Loss and Skin Irritation

Flea infestation is medically referred to as flea‑borne dermatitis, often classified as flea allergy dermatitis (FAD). The condition results from repeated flea bites that trigger an immune response in the host’s skin.

Hair loss and skin irritation are common sequelae of FAD. The mechanisms include:

Mechanical trauma from biting and scratching, which damages hair follicles and leads to localized alopecia.
Inflammatory mediators released during the allergic reaction, causing erythema, papules, and pruritus.
Secondary bacterial infection, which can exacerbate follicular destruction and prolong hair loss.

Effective management requires prompt eradication of the ectoparasite, topical anti‑inflammatory therapy, and, when necessary, systemic antihistamines or antibiotics to control infection and reduce the risk of permanent hair loss.

Flea Dirt Presence

Flea dirt, the digested blood that fleas excrete, serves as a primary indicator of a flea infestation. The particles appear as tiny, dark specks on an animal’s coat or in its bedding and are often mistaken for regular debris. When exposed to moisture, flea dirt dissolves and produces a reddish stain, confirming the presence of blood‑fed fleas.

Detection relies on visual inspection and simple tests:

Scan the fur, especially near the neck, tail base, and abdomen, for minute black specks.
Collect suspected specks on a white surface; add a few drops of water. A reddish hue indicates flea feces.
Use a fine‑toothed comb on the animal’s coat; examine the comb’s teeth for accumulated debris.
Inspect bedding, carpets, and upholstery for similar particles, focusing on areas where the animal rests.

The presence of flea dirt confirms active feeding by adult fleas, differentiating a mere presence of stray insects from a reproductive population. Identifying flea dirt enables timely intervention, preventing the spread of disease‑transmitting pathogens and reducing the risk of severe skin irritation. Prompt treatment based on this evidence curtails the life cycle and eliminates the infestation.

Clinical Manifestations in Humans

Itchy Bites and Rashes

Flea infestation is commonly referred to in veterinary and medical literature as flea‑borne dermatitis or, when an allergic response is involved, flea allergy dermatitis. The condition manifests primarily through skin irritation caused by flea bites.

Typical presentation of the bites and ensuing rash includes:

Small, red papules or wheals, often clustered in groups of three (a “break‑fast‑breakfast‑lunch” pattern);
Intense pruritus that prompts scratching;
Secondary erythema and edema surrounding the bite site;
Potential development of crusted lesions or excoriations from repeated trauma.

Diagnosis relies on visual confirmation of fleas or flea feces, coupled with the characteristic distribution of lesions on the lower abdomen, thighs, and lower back. Laboratory testing may identify IgE‑mediated hypersensitivity when allergy is suspected.

Effective management combines immediate removal of the ectoparasite and symptomatic relief:

Topical insecticides or oral flea control products to eradicate the source;
Antihistamines or topical corticosteroids to reduce itching and inflammation;
Antimicrobial ointments for secondary bacterial infection.

Prompt intervention halts the progression of the rash and prevents chronic skin changes.

Allergic Reactions

Flea infestations provoke immune responses in susceptible hosts, most commonly termed flea‑induced allergic dermatitis (FAD). The condition arises when IgE antibodies recognize flea saliva proteins, triggering mast‑cell degranulation and histamine release. Clinical presentation includes:

Pruritic papules or papulovesicles concentrated around the lower abdomen, thighs, and perianal region.
Erythema, edema, and excoriations resulting from persistent scratching.
Secondary bacterial infection in chronic cases.

Pathophysiology involves sensitization after repeated flea bites; the allergen–IgE complex binds to FcεRI receptors on mast cells, producing a rapid wheal‑and‑flare reaction. Delayed‑type hypersensitivity may follow, extending inflammation for days.

Diagnostic confirmation relies on:

Detailed exposure history confirming flea contact.
Physical examination identifying characteristic lesion distribution.
Intradermal testing or serum-specific IgE measurement for flea saliva antigens.

Management strategies focus on eliminating the ectoparasite and modulating the immune response:

Thorough environmental control: regular vacuuming, washing of bedding at ≥60 °C, and application of approved adulticidal and larvicidal agents.
Topical corticosteroids to reduce acute inflammation.
Antihistamines for pruritus relief.
In refractory cases, systemic glucocorticoids or immunomodulators may be indicated.

Preventive measures include routine flea prophylaxis for pets, routine inspection of living areas, and prompt treatment of infestations to reduce antigen exposure. Effective control of the ectoparasite diminishes allergen load, thereby preventing recurrence of flea‑related allergic reactions.

Implications of Untreated Infestations

Health Risks to Animals

Anemia

Anemia denotes a decrease in circulating red blood cells or hemoglobin, resulting in diminished oxygen transport capacity. Laboratory confirmation relies on reduced hemoglobin concentration, lowered hematocrit, and altered red cell indices.

Heavy flea burdens extract measurable volumes of blood from their hosts. In small mammals, repeated bites can deplete iron stores and precipitate hemoglobin loss, directly inducing anemia. The relationship between ectoparasite load and hematologic decline is quantifiable: each adult flea consumes up to 0.5 µL of blood per feeding; infestations exceeding several hundred individuals generate clinically significant blood loss within days.

Typical manifestations of flea‑related anemia include:

Pale mucous membranes
Weakness and reduced activity
Accelerated heart rate
Elevated respiratory effort

Diagnostic work‑up combines complete blood count with a physical examination for flea presence. Microscopic identification of flea feces or adult specimens confirms the ectoparasitic source.

Therapeutic protocol centers on two objectives:

Immediate eradication of fleas using topical or systemic insecticides approved for the species.
Restoration of hematologic balance through iron‑rich diet, oral supplementation, or, if necessary, transfusion of packed red cells.

Effective flea control prevents recurrence, stabilizes hemoglobin levels, and eliminates the primary driver of the anemia.

Dermatitis and Secondary Infections

Flea infestation in humans is commonly identified as flea‑bite dermatitis, a hypersensitivity reaction to flea saliva that produces an itchy, erythematous rash. The primary cutaneous manifestation consists of small, red papules or vesicles often clustered around the ankles, legs, or waistline where fleas commonly feed.

The inflammatory response can compromise the skin’s barrier function, creating an environment conducive to secondary bacterial colonisation. Frequently isolated pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes, which may infiltrate through excoriated lesions and provoke:

Acute impetigo with honey‑coloured crusts
Cellulitis characterized by spreading erythema, warmth, and pain
Erythroderma in severe, disseminated cases

Effective management requires simultaneous control of the ectoparasite and treatment of the skin reaction. Antihistamines or topical corticosteroids reduce pruritus and inflammation, while appropriate antimicrobial therapy—topical mupirocin for localized infection or oral antibiotics for extensive cellulitis—addresses bacterial complications. Preventive measures such as regular laundering of bedding, vacuuming, and environmental insecticide application are essential to halt re‑infestation and reduce recurrence of dermatitis and its secondary infections.

Tapeworm Transmission

Tapeworms reach definitive hosts through ingestion of infected intermediate or paratenic hosts. Common pathways include:

Consumption of raw or undercooked meat containing cysticerci (e.g., pork, beef, fish).
Accidental ingestion of eggs released in the feces of a carrier animal.
Transfer via contaminated water or produce that has contacted fecal material.

Intermediate hosts, such as livestock or fish, develop larval cysts after ingesting eggs. When a predator or human consumes the infected tissue, the cysts evaginate, attach to the intestinal wall, and mature into adult tapeworms. Proper cooking, thorough washing of produce, and strict sanitation of animal husbandry environments interrupt this cycle and prevent infection.

Health Risks to Humans

Allergic Reactions

Flea‑induced allergic reactions occur when a host’s immune system overreacts to proteins in flea saliva, feces, or excrement. The response typically manifests as pruritic dermatitis, characterized by erythema, papules, and crusted lesions at sites of flea bites. In severe cases, the inflammation spreads beyond the immediate bite area, leading to secondary bacterial infection and chronic skin thickening.

Key clinical features include:

Intense itching that intensifies after exposure to infested environments.
Red, raised bumps often arranged in clusters or linear patterns.
Alopecia or hair loss in heavily affected regions.
Scaly, dry patches resulting from repeated scratching.

Management requires simultaneous eradication of the ectoparasite and suppression of the hypersensitivity response. Effective control strategies involve:

Environmental treatment with insecticidal sprays or foggers to eliminate adult fleas and immature stages.
Regular grooming and bathing using medicated shampoos containing antipruritic agents.
Pharmacologic therapy such as antihistamines, corticosteroids, or immunomodulators to reduce immune activation.
Monitoring for recurrence and adjusting preventive measures according to seasonal flea activity.

Disease Transmission (Rare)

A host harboring a population of fleas is described as experiencing a flea infestation. This condition creates a direct pathway for pathogens carried on the flea’s mouthparts, excreta, or body surface to enter the host’s bloodstream.

Flea-borne pathogens that cause rare diseases include:

Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague; transmission occurs when infected fleas bite humans, introducing bacteria from the flea’s foregut.
Rickettsia typhi, responsible for murine typhus; fleas acquire the organism from infected rodents and transmit it through contaminated feces during feeding.
Bartonella henselae, associated with cat‑scratch disease; fleas serve as vectors by moving the bacteria between cats and occasionally to humans.
Francisella tularensis, the agent of tularemia; certain flea species can acquire the bacterium from wildlife and deliver it during blood meals.

Transmission relies on the flea’s feeding behavior, which creates micro‑injuries that permit pathogen entry, and on the flea’s ability to maintain viable organisms within its digestive tract for extended periods. Control of flea infestations therefore reduces the risk of these uncommon, but clinically significant, infections.

Prevention and Treatment Approaches

Effective Control Strategies

Topical Treatments

Topical agents provide rapid relief from the discomfort and skin lesions associated with flea‑induced irritation. They are applied directly to the affected area, delivering active ingredients that either kill adult fleas, disrupt their life cycle, or soothe inflamed skin.

Permethrin‑based creams or sprays – neurotoxic to fleas, causing paralysis and death; effective for short‑term control on both animals and humans.
Fipronil spot‑on formulations – spread across the skin’s lipid layer, maintaining lethal concentrations for several weeks; commonly used on dogs and cats.
Ivermectin lotions – antiparasitic action that immobilizes fleas; useful for patients with severe allergic reactions to bites.
Hydrocortisone or diphenhydramine gels – anti‑inflammatory and antihistamine effects that reduce itching and erythema while other insecticidal agents work.
Essential‑oil blends (e.g., neem, eucalyptus) – repel fleas and provide mild soothing properties; suitable for mild infestations or as adjuncts to synthetic treatments.

Application guidelines include cleaning the skin surface before use, adhering to the manufacturer’s dosage instructions, and avoiding contact with eyes or mucous membranes. Re‑treatment intervals vary: permethrin and fipronil typically require re‑application every 2–4 weeks, whereas corticosteroid gels may be applied multiple times daily until symptoms subside.

Integrating topical treatments with environmental control—regular vacuuming, laundering bedding, and insecticide‑treated sprays—enhances overall efficacy and reduces the risk of re‑infestation.

Oral Medications

Flea infestation, often referred to as a flea outbreak, is a parasitic condition that can affect companion animals and, indirectly, humans. Effective control frequently relies on systemic treatment, whereby the active compound is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and distributed via the bloodstream to eliminate adult fleas and interrupt their life cycle.

Oral agents approved for flea management include:

Spinosad – neurotoxic insecticide causing rapid flea death; administered monthly.
Nitenpyram – fast‑acting compound that kills existing fleas within 30 minutes; single‑dose treatment.
Lufenuron – chitin synthesis inhibitor that prevents development of eggs and larvae; given monthly.
Milbemycin oxime – macrocyclic lactone with activity against fleas and several internal parasites; monthly dosing.
Afoxolaner, Fluralaner, Sarolaner, Lotilaner – isoxazoline class; provide 30‑day to 12‑month protection against adult fleas and additional ectoparasites.

Key considerations for oral flea control:

Dosage must be calculated per kilogram of body weight to avoid toxicity.
Resistance monitoring is essential, especially for compounds with a single‑mode action.
Concurrent use of topical products may lead to drug interactions; veterinary guidance is required.
Pregnant or lactating animals may have restricted access to certain classes, such as isoxazolines.

When administered correctly, oral medications deliver systemic exposure that kills feeding fleas, reduces environmental contamination, and supports long‑term eradication of the flea outbreak.

Environmental Control

Effective environmental control reduces the prevalence of flea populations and limits the risk of transmission to humans and animals. Primary measures focus on habitat modification, chemical interventions, and regular monitoring.

Remove organic debris, such as leaf litter and pet bedding, that provides breeding sites.
Vacuum carpets, upholstery, and cracks daily; discard vacuum bags or clean canisters immediately.
Wash pet linens, blankets, and household linens in hot water (≥ 60 °C) weekly.
Apply residual insecticides approved for indoor use to baseboards, under furniture, and entry points; rotate active ingredients to prevent resistance.
Install physical barriers, such as screens on windows and doors, to restrict outdoor flea entry.
Maintain low indoor humidity (≤ 50 %) and temperature (≤ 25 °C) to inhibit egg development.

Supplementary actions include treating outdoor zones where pets roam: mow grass, trim shrubs, and apply targeted larvicides to soil. Conduct periodic inspections of pets and environments to detect early signs of infestation and adjust control strategies accordingly.

Integrated Pest Management for Fleas

Regular Cleaning and Vacuuming

Regular cleaning and vacuuming are essential components of flea control. Frequent removal of debris, hair, and organic matter eliminates the environments where flea eggs and larvae develop. Vacuuming disrupts life stages, extracts insects from carpets, upholstery, and floor coverings, and reduces the overall population.

Effective practice includes:

Vacuum all carpeted areas, rugs, and upholstered furniture daily during an active infestation.
Empty the vacuum canister or replace the bag immediately after use to prevent re‑infestation.
Wash bedding, pet blankets, and removable covers in hot water (minimum 130 °F) weekly.
Sweep and mop hard floors with a detergent solution to remove residual organic material.
Dispose of collected debris in sealed bags and discard outside the residence.

Consistent application of these measures, combined with appropriate veterinary treatments, significantly lowers the risk of a flea infestation, often referred to in veterinary terminology as flea bite dermatitis.

Professional Pest Control Services

Fleas proliferating in homes, kennels or livestock areas are identified as a flea infestation, often termed a fleaborne outbreak.

Professional pest control providers confront this condition through a structured approach:

Thorough site inspection to locate adult fleas, larvae, eggs and breeding sites.
Identification of species and assessment of infestation severity.
Selection of treatment modalities, including insect growth regulators, adulticides and environmental sanitation.
Targeted application of products to carpets, upholstery, cracks, crevices and animal bedding.
Post‑treatment monitoring to verify eradication and prevent re‑infestation.

The service sequence begins with a detailed assessment, proceeds to calibrated chemical or non‑chemical interventions, and concludes with a documentation of results and a schedule for follow‑up visits.

Engaging certified technicians ensures compliance with regulatory standards, minimizes health risks to occupants and animals, and delivers a faster, more reliable resolution than over‑the‑counter attempts.